GIFT  or 

Dr.  Robert  T.  Sutherland 


GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS 


Sweden. 


THE  WORLD'S  BEST  HISTORIES 


SWEDEN 


BY 


VICTOR   NILSSON,  Ph.D. 

AUTHOR  OF  "lODDFAFNISMAL,  AN  EDDIC  STUDY** 


WITH  FRONTISPIECE 


THE  CO-OPERATIVE  PUBLICATION  SOCIETY 
NEW   YORK   AND   LONDON 


Copyright   1899 
By  peter  FENELON  COLLIER 


N  5 


SWEDEN 


CONTENTS 


PAOI 
INTRODUCTION 9 

CHAPTER  I 

SWEDEN  IN  PREHISTORIC  AND  EARLY  HISTORIC  TIMES— ABCH-fflOLOGI- 

CAL  FINDS  AND  CLASSICAIi  TESTIMONY 11 

CHAPTER  II 

DAWN  OP  SWEDISH  HISTORY— HEIMSKRINQLA  AND  YNGLINGATAL      •        88 

CHAPTER  III 

THE  VIKING  AGE— ANSGAR,  THE  APOSTLE  OP  SWEDEN         ...       44 

CHAPTER  IV 

EARLY      CHRISTIAN       ERA— STENKIL'S      LINE     AND     INTEBCHAHCHWG 

DYNASTIES *  ,        d^ 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  MEDLffiVAL  STATE— THE  POLKUNG  DYNASTY  .  •  .  .       80 

CHAPTER  VI 

UNIONISM        VERSUS       PATRIOTISM— MARGARET,      ENGELBREKT      AND 

CHARLES  KNUTSSON 100 

CHAPTER  VII 

UNIONISM    VERSUS    PATRIOTISM— UNCROWNED    KINGS  OF  THE  8TCBB 

FAMILIES 115 

CHAPTER  VIII 

REVOLUTION  AND  REFORMATION— GUSTAVUS  VASA   .    •    •    .180 

CHAPTER  IX 

REFORMATION  AND  REACTION— THE  SONS  OP  GUSTAVUS  I.  •  •     101 

CHAPTER  X 

PERIOD  OF  POLITICAL  GRANDEUR — GUSTAVUS  II.   ADOLPHUS       .  .      IW 

(3) 


nofiO/i  CHS 


«  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XI 

PERIOD  OF  POLITICAL  GRANDEUR — QUEEN  CHRISTINE  ^  22Q 

CHAPTER  XII 

PERIOD  OP  POLITICAL  GRANDEUR— CHARLES  X.   AND  CHARLES  XI.     .      249 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PERIOD  OP  POLITICAL  GRANDEUR— CHARLES  XII 268 

CHAPTER  XrV 

PERIOD  OF  LIBERTY — THE   ARISTOCRATIC  REPUBLIC    .  •  •  .      810 

CHAPTER  XV 

GUSTAVIAN  PERIOD— GUSTAVUS  IH.    AND  GUSTAVUS  IV.   ADOLPHU8    .      843 

CHAPTER  XVI 

THE    CONSTITUTIONAL    MONARCHY— CHARLES    XIH.   AND  THE  EARLY 


BERNADOTTES 


CHAPTER  XVII 

PARLIAMENTARY  REFORM — CHARLES  XV.       .••••.      891 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

PROGRESS  AND  PROSPERITY — OSCAR  H 414 


INTRODUCTION 


The  kingdom  of  Sweden  occupies  the  eastern  and  larger 
part  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  covering  an  area  of  one 
hundred  and  seventy  thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  somewhat  more  than  five  mil- 
lions. Sweden  is  of  nearly  the  same  width,  from  east  to 
west,  throughout  her  whole  length.  If  the  country  were 
divided  into  four  equal  parts,  the  southernmost  part  would 
correspond  to  the  district  of  Gothaland,  the  next  to  the  dis- 
trict of  Svealand,  consisting  of  most  of  what  is  north  of  the 
lakes  Venar  and  Vetter  and  what  is  south  of  the  Dal  River, 
while  the  two  remaining  parts  together  would  make  up  the 
district  of  ITorrland.  Gothaland,  in  ancient  times  called 
Sunnanskogs  (South  of  the  Woods),  consists  of  the  old 
provinces  Scania,  Bleking,  Smaland  and  East  Gothland 
by  the  Baltic,  Halland  and  Bohuslsen  by  the  North  Sea, 
and  West  Gothland  of  the  interior=  Svealand,  or  Nordan^ 
skogs,  consists  of  the  provinces  Soedermanland  and  Upland 
by  the  Baltic,  south  and  north  of  Lake  Mselar,  respectively, 
Dal,  Vermland  and  Dalecarlia  on  the  Norwegian  frontier, 
and  Nerike  and  Westmanland  of  the  interior.  Norrland 
consists  of  the  provinces  of  Gestrikland,  Helsingland,  Me- 
delpad,  Angermanland  and  Westerbotten  by  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  a  branch  of  the  Baltic,  and  Herjedal,  Jemtland 
And  the  Lapmark  on  the  Norwegian  frontier.     A  great 

(6) 


8  INTRODUCTION 

number  of  islands  form  part  of  the  kingdom,  of  which  the 
two  largest,  Gothland  and  (Eland,  are  situated  in  the  Bal- 
tic. One-twelfth  of  the  area,  or  as  much  as  the  whole 
state  of  Denmark,  consists  of  water.     ' 

Sweden  is  politically  united  with  Norway  and  ruled  by 
the  same  king,  these  united  kingdoms  forming  the  largest 
realm  in  Europe  next  to  Russia,  Sweden  herself  ranking 
as  the  sixth  in  size. 

Sweden  is  a  country  which  offers  striking  varieties  in 
scenery  and  conditions.  In  the  southernmost  province  of 
Scania,  an  ancient  home  of  culture,  the  nightingale  and  the 
stork  dwell  in  the  fertile  plains,  and  the  walnut,  mulberry 
and  chestnut  trees  render  ripening  fruitc  Central  Sweden 
is  a  wooded  plateau,  rich  in  rocky  hills  and  inland  seas. 
Although  barren  lands  occupy  large  areas,  these  parts  are 
characterized  by  a  loveliness  and  picturesqueness  which 
are  still  more  pronounced  in  the  northern  provinces  along 
the  coast..  Only  in  the  inner  mountainous  regions  of  Norr- 
land  is  the  scenery  of  real  grandeur  where  the  white-capped 
giants  appear  in  vast  groups,  or  in  isolated  peaks  of  six 
thousand  to  seven  thousand  feet  in  altitude,  where  a  hun- 
dred glaciers  with  glacier  rivers,  moraines  and  erosions 
cover  a  surface  almost  as  large  as  the  glaciers  of  Tyrol, 
and  where,  in  the  turbulent  course  of  mighty  rivers,  are 
formed  tremendous  waterfalls,  one  of  them.  The  Hare's 
L«ap,  being  the  largest  in  Europe. 

Geologically  considered,  Sweden  is  situated  around  the 
centre  of  the  ancient  Scandinavian  land-ice,  and  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  only  two  of  the  geological 
series,  the  oldest  and  the  youngest,  are  represented.  Thus 
the  uneven,  undulating  surface  of  the  Archaean  rocks,  on 
which  almost  the  whole  country  is  firmly  set,  is  in  general 


INTRODUCTION  7 

covered  with  quaternary  deposits  of  gravel  and  clayc  The 
mountains  are  rich  in  iron  ore,  the  streams  and  lakes  in 
fish,  the  woods  in  game,  but  the  soil,  itself  of  a  good  qual- 
ity, unfortunately  rich  in  stones.  This  last-mentioned  cir- 
cumstance, together  with  the  rather  severe  climate,  which 
yet  is  a  good  deal  milder  than  might  be  expected,  especially 
in  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  the  country,  makes 
agriculture,  which  is  the  most  important  industry,  profit- 
able only  on  the  extensive  plains  of  Scania,  Upland  and 
"West  and  East  Gothland.  Still  barley  and  rye  are  culti- 
vated within  the  Polar  Circle,  ripening  in  remarkably 
short  time  under  the  nocturnal  light  of  the  Midsum- 
mer sun.  Dense  forests  cover  Sweden  in  the  very 
same  latitude  in  which  Greenland  is  clad  by  eternal 
ice.  The  short  summers  are  of  a  surpassing  loveli- 
ness. In  Norrland  there  is  a  Swedish  Icen,  or  gov- 
ernmental district,  of  the  size  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  on 
which,  between  the  5th  of  June  and  the  11th  of  July,  the 
Sim  never  sets.  If  the  earth  was  perfectly  plain  and  even 
one  would  be  able  to  see  the  sun  above  the  horizon  contin- 
ually during  this  period.  But  these  northerly  regions  are 
very  mountainous,  and  consequently  you  will  have  to  climb 
a  high  peak  in  order  to  see  the  wonderful  sight  of  a  sun 
which  stands  still  when  it  should  set,  and  which  marks 
the  difference  between  night  and  day  only  by  a  rolling 
motion  in  the  horizon.  There  is  no  country  in  the  world 
where  so  many  places  for  such  observation  are  reached 
BO  easily  as  in  Sweden.  One  may  travel  the  whole  distance 
from  the  southernmost  point  of  the  country  to  the  very  base 
of  a  mountain,  Gellivara,  Sweden's  Klondike,  from  which 
the  midnight  sun  can  be  seen  for  thirty-seven  nights  in 
succession.     But  although  the  sun  itself  is  visible  only  from 


8  INTRODUCTION 

the  mountain  peaks  above  the  Polar  Circle,  the  nocturnal 
light  steeps  the  whole  realm  in  midsummer-night's  dreams 
of  magic  colors  and  reflections. 

The  Swedish  people  are  of  Teutonic  stock  and  have 
lived  in  the  land  they  still  inhabit  for  at  least  four  thou- 
sand years,  during  this  entire  period  not  having  assimilated 
other  nationalities,  or  at  least  to  no  extent  worth  mention- 
ing, so  that  the  Swedish  nation  is  of  an  origin  far  purer 
than  any  other  at  present  existing. 

The  kingdom  of  Sweden  is  the  most  ancient  of  the  states 
still  extant  in  Europe,  for  all  historical  monuments  prove 
that  the  Swedes  have  kept  to  about  their  present  territory, 
perfectly  independent  of  foreign  nations,  probably  for  a  long 
time  divided  into  lesser  commimities,  but  for  tho  past  twelve 
hundred  years  united  in  one  single  realnio  The  languages 
spoken  in  the  Scandinavian  North  belong  to  the  Teutonic 
family  of  Indo-European  languages,  and  seem  to  have  been 
one  and  almost  homogeneous  up  to  the  time  of  the  Viking 
Age  (about  700-1060),  when  various  dialects  commence  to 
be  distinguished.  The  old  uniform  language  has  been 
preserved  in  Northern  loanwords  in  the  Finnish  and  Lap 
languages  and  in  about  one  hundred  of  the  oldest  Runic  in- 
scriptions. The  early  Old  Swedish,  from  the  Viking  Age  to 
somewhat  later  than  1200,  did  not  differ  much  from  the 
Old  Norse  (the  Old  Norwegian  and  Old  Icelandic),  while 
the  difference  from  the  Old  Danish  was  almost  impercepti- 
ble. The  sources  for  the  study  of  this  language  period  are 
about  two  thousand  later  Runic  inscriptions  and  nearly  one 
hundred  Old  Swedish  loanwords,  almost  all  proper  names, 
in  the  Russian  language.  The  classical  period  of  Old  Swed- 
ish falls  between  1200  and  about  1350.  Its  most  important 
monuments  are  the  provincial  laws  and  a  manuscript  collec- 


INTRODUCTION  b 

tion  of  saintly  legends,  called  Codex  Bureanus.  The  lan- 
guage of  this  period  offers  a  number  of  dialects,  of  which 
only  one,  the  Gutnic,  is  strictly  defined.  In  the  next  period 
of  Old  Swedish,  from  1350  to  the  Reformation,  a  universal 
language  for  the  whole  country  is  distinguished.  The  so- 
called  Oxenstiern  manuscripts  and  Codex  Bildstenianus  are 
the  chief  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  this  language  period, 
mostly  of  religious  contents.  Modern  Swedish  dates  from 
the  Reformation,  its  later  period  being  counted  from  the 
publication  of  the  state  law  in  1734.  The  Swedish  language 
seems  to  be  based  chiefly  upon  the  dialect  of  Soedermanland, 
with  influences  from  other  dialects.  Among  the  Scandina- 
vian languages,  Swedish  ranks  next  to  the  Icelandic  in  point 
of  purity,  and  is  the  foremost  of  them  all  in  point  of  beauty. 
The  Swedes  are  a  hardworking,  industrious  and  intelli- 
gent race,  not  fully  conscious  of  their  own  rich  endowment 
and  slow  to  push  their  individual  claims.  In  moments  of 
danger  and  distress,  this  people  give  evidence  of  an  active 
heroism,  which  offers  a  great  contrast  to  their  usual  quiet 
and  p^^ceful  demeanor.  The  Swedish  nation  is  endowed 
with  an  unusual  inventive  power,  which  has  placed  it  in 
the  first  rank  of  scientific  research,  having  produced  a  quota 
of  initiative  spirits,  as  originators,  founders  and  innovators 
of  sciences,  which  is  considerably  larger  than  that  of  any 
other  modem  country,  in  proportion  to  the  population.  The 
national  temperament  is,  like  the  soil,  composed  of  extremes. 
With  the  serene  quiet  and  almost  sullen  tranquillity  goes  a 
patience  of  extraordinary  endurance  which,  when  it  gives 
in,  surprises  by  the  passion  which  takes  its  place.  To  the 
melancholy  trait  in  the  Swedish  character  is  contrasted  a 
great  desire  for  the  pleasures  of  life  and  exuberant  animal 
spirits.     Under  a  quiet  surface,  the  Swede  conceals  a  rapid 


10  INTRODUCTION 

comprehension  and  an  almost  morbid  sensitiyeneBS,  some* 
times  causing  people  of  other  nationalities  to  judge  him 
slow  of  intellect  or  perfidious,  when  he  is  only  slow  of  ac- 
tion or  indisposed  to  show  his  feelings.  The  most  valual)le 
inheritance  from  his  ancestors  is  his  moral  courage,  while 
the  ancient  Northern  trait  of  self-restraint  is  often  carried 
to  an  extreme.  Akin  to  both  is  his  dignity.  He  possesses 
great  musical  and  improvisatorial  gifts  which  complete  his 
lyric-rhetorical  temperament. 

There  are  some  6,000  Laplanders  and  some  20,000  Finns 
Kving  in  the  furthest  North,  and  foreigners  to  the  number 
of  about  20,000  dwell  in  Sweden,  mostly  Norwegians,  Finns 
and  Danes.  More  than  99  per  cent  of  the  population  con- 
sists of  native  Swedes,  and  99.9  per  cent  belong  to  the 
Lutheran  state  church  or  the  Protestant  denominations. 

The  principal  towns  are  Stockholm,  the  capital,  with 
800,000  inhabitants,  enchantingly  beautiful  in  situation,  oa 
the  mainland  and  islands  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Mselar  into 
the  Baltic;  Gothenburg,  with  120,000  inhabitants,  the  chief 
commercial  centre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gotha  River,  by 
the  North  Sea;  Malmoe,  with  60,000  inhabitants,  in  Scania, 
by  the  Sound.  The  university  towns  of  Upsala,  in  Upland, 
and  Lund,  in  Scania,  have  25,000  and  17,000  inhabitants^ 
respectivdy. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 


CHAPTER  I 

Sweden    in    Prehistoric    and    Early    Historic    Times-^ 
Archaeological    Finds    and    Classical    Testimony 

THE  Swedes,  although  the  oldest  and  most  unmixed 
race  m  Europe,  realized  very  late  the  necessity  of 
writing   chronicles   or   reviews   of    historic   events. 
Thus  the  names  of  heroes  and  kings  of  the  remotest  past 
are  helplessly  forgotten,  and  lost  also  the  history  of  its 
earliest  religion  and  institutions. 

But  Mother  Earth  has  carefully  preserved  most  of  what 
has  been  deposited  in  her  bosom,  and  has  repaid  diligent 
research  with  trustworthy  and  irrefutable  accounts  of  the 
age  and  various  degrees  of  civilization  of  the  race  which 
inhabited  Sweden  in  prehistoric  times.  Thus  it  has  been 
proved  that  Sweden,  like  most  other  countries,  has  had  a 
Stone  Age,  a  Bronze  Age,  and  an  Iron  Age.  But  there  is 
absolutely  no  evidence  to  prove  the  now  antiquated  theories 
of  various  immigrations  into  Sweden  by  different  races  on 
different  stages  of  civilization.  On  the  contrary,  the  graves 
from  the  remotest  times,  through  all  successive  periods, 
prove  by  the  form  of  the  skulls  of  those  buried  in  them  that 
Sweden  has,  through  all  ages,  been  inhabited  by  the  same 
dolichocephalic,  or  long-headed,  race  which  constitutes  the 
overwhelming  majority  of  her  people  to-day. 

(11) 


la  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Sweden,  physically  considered,  is  not  of  as  high  an- 
tiquity  as  some  countries  of  Europe.  Yet  it  has  been 
inhabited  dining  the  last  four  thousand  years,  at  least. 
In  the  quaternary  period  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  was 
a  centre  of  a  glacial  movement  which  spread  its  disastrous 
influences  over  Western  Russia,  Northern  Germany  and 
Holland.  In  that  period  no  vegetable  or  animal  life  was 
possible  in  Sweden.  From  the  fact  that  the  earliest  stone 
celts  found  in  Sweden  and  Denmark  are  not  polished,  ar- 
chseologists  were  led  to  suppose  that  the  Stone  Age  of  the 
North  was  contemporaneous  with  the  Palaeolithic  civili- 
zation in  "Western  Europe.  But  this  standpoint  has  been 
found  untenable,  because  it  has  later  become  evident  that 
the  fauna  surrounding  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the 
Northern  coxmtries  was  ours  and   not  a  quaternary  one. 

The  oldest  types  of  finds  of  the  Stone  Age  in  the  North 
have  been  discovered  in  the  refuse-heaps  on  the  Danish 
C5oast.  These  refuse-heaps,  consisting  of  stone  implements, 
shells,  bones,  etc.,  do  not  occur  in  Sweden,  but  the  imple- 
ments characteristic  of  them  are  found  scattered  over  some 
parts  of  the  southernmost  Swedish  province  of  Scania.  The 
ghape  of  these  earliest  finds  is  exactly  the  same  as  of  those 
of  the  later  Stone  Age,  the  only  difference  being  that  the 
former  are  not  polished.  But  there  are  transitions  between 
the  classes,  and  the  act  of  polishing  must  be  regarded  as  an 
Important  phase  of  progress. 

The  Stone  Age  of  Sweden  is  quite  remarkable.  If  the 
remains  of  the  earlier  period  are  scanty,  the  finds  from  the 
later  one  are  all  the  more  numerous.  "With  the  exception 
of  Denmark  and  a  part  of  North  Germany,  there  is  no  Eu- 
ropean country  which  can  boast  of  such  rich  and  beautiful 
relics  from  the  later  Stone  Age  as  the  southern  part  of 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  13 

Sweden.  The  finds  in  the  other  countries  mentioned  are 
almost  exactly  like  those  of  Sweden  from  the  Stone  and  the 
Bronze  Ages,  both  as  far  as  implements  and  skulls  are  con- 
cerned, proving  them  to  have  been  settled  by  the  same  race. 

The  weapons  and  implements  from  the  Stone  Age  con- 
sist of  axes,  daggers,  spearheads,  arrowheads,  saws,  and 
knives  of  flint ;  axes,  gauges,  handmiUs  of  stone ;  fishhooks 
and  arrowheads  of  bone;  earthenware,  etc.,  etc.  The  graves 
of  this  period  are  dolmens,  passage-graves,  and  stone  cists, 
the  last  mentioned  either  uncovered  or  covered  with  a  bar- 
row. The  different  forms  of  burial  places  seem  to  indicate 
four  successive  stages  of  the  period.  Through  their  exist- 
ence it  becomes  probable  that  the  inhabitants  of  Sweden 
during  the  Stone  Age  had  fixed  dwelling  places. 

A  dolmen  is  a  grave-chamber  of  which  the  walls  are 
formed  of  large,  thick  stones  set  up  edgewise,  covered  with 
one  huge  block  of  stone  as  a  roof,  all  the  stones  being  rough 
outside  and  smooth  inside.  The  passage-graves  are  built 
in  the  same  way,  but  are  larger  and  distinguished  by  a  long 
covered  passage  leading  to  it.  These  graves  are  surrounded 
by  a  low  barrow,  upon  the  top  of  which  the  huge  roof -stones 
were  originally  visible.  Dolmens  and  passage- graves  occur 
in  Sweden  in  considerable  numbers  along  the  coast  of 
Scania,  on  the  plains  of  West  Gothland  and  in  Bohuslsen, 
more  sparsely  in  other  parts  of  "West  Gothland  and  in  Hal- 
land,  with  stray  cases  of  graves  of  a  similar  construction 
in  Nerike  and  Western  Soedermanland.  It  is  important  to 
note  the  regions  in  which  these  graves  have  been  found,  for 
they  must  be  identical  with  the  parts  of  the  earliest  settle- 
ments. Such  graves  are  also  very  common  in  Denmark, 
while  only  one  has  been  found  in  Norway. 

The  stone  cists  resemble  very  much  the  chamber  of  a 


24  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

passage-grave.  They  are  larger  and  four-sided,  and  built 
of  somewhat  thinner  stones.  Stone  cists  standing  partly 
visible  above  the  barrow  constitute  a  form  peculiar  to 
Sweden,  occurring  in  great  numbers  in  West  Gothland, 
Bohuslsen,  Dalsland  and  Southwestern  Vermland,  while 
the  covered  stone  cists  appear  in  the  same  provinces  and 
in  Nerike,  East  Gothland,  Smaland,  Bleking  and  the  Island 
of  Gothland. 

During  the  Stone  Age  the  bodies  were  buried  unburned, 
in  a  recumbent  or  sitting  position.  By  the  side  of  the  dead 
body  was  usually  placed  a  weapon,  a  tool,  or  some  orna- 
ments, sometimes  also  earthenware  vessels,  now  filled  only 
with  earth.  These  vessels  may  once  have  contained  food. 
The  elaborate  graves  seem  to  indicate  a  belief  in  a  future 
life.  The  food,  if  any  such  was  placed  by  the  side  of  the 
dead,  would  not  necessarily  point  to  the  fact  that  such  a 
future  life  was  imagined  merely  as  a  continuation  of  earth 
life.  The  heathen  Scandinavians  of  a  later  age  believed 
that  the  dead  remained  for  some  time  in  their  burial  place 
before  reaching  their  ultimate  destination.  For  their  pos- 
sible wants  during  this  intermediate  state  food  was  left 
with  the  dead  body. 

The  total  number  of  relics  of  stone  found  in  Sweden  is 
64,000.  Of  these  only  4,000  belong  to  Svealand  and  Norr- 
land,  while  of  all  the  rest  found  in  Gothaland  45,000  belong 
to  Scania  alone. 

In  a  much  later  age  the  Scandinavians  were  regarded 
as  pure  barbarians.  For  this  reason  it  is  important  to  ob- 
serve that  graves  from  the  Stone  Age  show  that  the  Swedes 
in  that  remote  period  had  several  domesticated  animals, 
the  dog,  horse,  ox,  swine,  sheep,  and,  perhaps,  also  the 
goat.     Hence  they  were  certainly  a  pastoral  people,   not 


HISTORY  OF  SWEDEN  15 

Hving  exclusively  by  hunting  and  fishing.  But  whether 
they  practiced  agriculture  cannot  be  decided  in  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge.  The  fact  that  the  very  oldest 
graves  are  found  in  the  most  fertile  districts  of  Southern 
Sweden  seems  to  speak  in  favor  of  the  supposition  that 
agriculture  was  known  and  appreciated. 

Of  metals,  even  of  gold,  the  people  of  the  late  Stone 
Age  were  entirely  ignorant,  also  of  the  art  of  writing. 
Hence  no  monuments  of  their  language  will  ever  be  found. 
Still  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  Teutonic  ancestors  of  the 
Swedes  began  to  settle  in  the  land  from  the  beginning  of 
the  Stone  Age. 

It  is  true  that  some  skulls,  very  much  like  those  of  the 
Laps,  have  also  been  found  in  the  graves  of  the  Stone  Age; 
but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  burial  places,  im- 
pressive through  their  size  and  the  amount  of  work  and 
mechanical  skill  necessary  for  their  erection,  can  be  believed 
to  have  been  originally  intended  only  for  kings  or  chief- 
tains, and  their  families.  It  was  probably  a  custom,  as 
in  later  heathen  times,  to  bury  with  such  distinguished 
people  a  number  of  slaves,  dead  or  alive.  The  presence  of 
skulls  of  a  non-Scandinavian  type  can  thus  be  explained, 
without  the  necessity  of  accepting  the  theory  of  an  early 
mixture  of  two  races. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Sweden  have  been  found  relics 
of  stone,  usually  of  slate,  which  do  not  appear  to  have 
belonged  to  the  people  of  the  dolmens  or  passage-graves. 
They  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  those  found  in  Finland 
and  in  other  countries  inhabited  by  Laps,  Finns  and  peo- 
ples related  to  them.  This  seems  to  prove  that  these  so- 
called  Arctic  stone  implements  are  relics  of  the  Laps  and 
belong  to  the  time  when  this  people  was  still  ignorant  of 


16  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

the  use  of  metal.  Judging  from  the  number  of  relics 
found  on  the  coast,  from  Westerbotten  to  Gestrikland,  and 
in  Dalecarlia,  the  Laps  dwelt  also  in  somewhat  more  south- 
erly parts  of  Sweden  than  at  the  present  day.  So  far  south 
as  in  the  middle  provinces,  no  Arctic  stone  relics  have  been 
found,  still  less  in  any  of  the  southern  provinces.  This 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  Laps  and  the  Swedes  did  not 
dwell  in  the  same  parts  of  the  country  during  the  Stone 
Age,  and  their  intercourse,  if  any,  must  have  been  of  a 
very  accidental  and  casual  nature. 

That  the  Stone  Age  lasted  a  very  long  time  in  the 
North  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  reached  a  far  higher 
development  there  than  anywhere  else  in  Europe.  The 
best  authorities  think  that  it  must  have  ended  rather 
before  than  after  1500  B.C.,  or  3,500  years  before  our 
time. 

The  Bronze  Age  followed  upon  the  Stone  Age.  Flint 
exists  in  Sweden  and  was  easily  found.  There  are  also 
copper  mines,  but  their  working  is  of  comparatively  mod- 
ern date.  The  copper  of  the  Bronze  Age  must  have  been 
brought  from  abroad,  and  tin,  necessary  for  the  production 
of  bronze,  is  foreign  to  Scandinavia.  The  knowledge  of 
the  working  of  any  metal  proves  an  immense  progress. 
Yet  there  are  strong  groimds  for  the  opinion  that  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Bronze  Age  in  Sweden  was  not  connected 
with  any  great  immigration  of  a  new  race,  but  that  the 
Inhabitants  learned  the  art  of  working  bronze  by  inter- 
course with  other  nations.  The  resemblance  of  the  graves 
during  the  last  part  of  the  Stone  Age  and  the  early  part 
of  the  Bronze  Age  points  most  strongly  to  such  a  conclu- 
sion. From  Asia  the  knowledge  of  bronze,  and  the  higher 
dvilization  dependent  on  it,  had  gradually  spread    itself 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  17 

over  the  contment  of  Europe,  in  a  northerly  and  north- 
westerly direction,  until  it  reached  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic. 

The  Bronze  Age  of  Sweden  began  about  1600  B.C.,  and 
lasted  for  a  thousand  years,  or  until  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century  before  Christ.  The  period  has  been  divided 
into  an  Earlier  and  a  Later  Bronze  Age,  a  division  which 
has  been  questioned  as  to  its  absolute  correctness.  The 
works  from  the  former  are  decorated  with  fine  spiral  oma* 
ments  and  zigzag  lines.  The  graves  generally  contain  re- 
mains of  unburned  bodies.  The  antiquities  of  the  Earlier 
Bronze  Age,  almost  without  an  exception,  appear  to  be  of 
native  workmanship.  They  are  distinguished  by  artistic 
forms  and  point  to  a  highly  developed  taste  in  the  working 
of  bronze.  They  generally  surpass  in  this  respect  the 
relics  of  the  Bronze  Age  found  in  almost  all  other  Euro- 
pean countries.  The  works  belonging  to  the  Later  Bronze 
Age  are  characterized  by  a  very  different  taste  and  style 
of  ornamentation,  though  even  they  are  often  the  result 
of  great  skill.  The  spiral  ornaments  are  no  longer  pre- 
dominant, but  the  ends  of  rings,  knife-handles,  and  the 
like,  are  often  rolled  up  in  spiral  volutes. 

During  this  period  the  dead  were  always  burned.  But- 
tons, sword-hilts,  and  other  works  of  bronze  were  some- 
times decorated  with  pieces  of  amber  and  resin  inlaid. 
Objects  are  also  often  found  overlaid  with  thin  plates  of 
gold. 

Remarkable  are  the  rock-carvings  from  this  period. 
The  Swedes  of  the  Bronze  Age  understood,  by  a  kind  of 
picture-writing,  how  to  preserve  the  memory  of  important 
events,  although  an  alphabet  of  any  kind  was  unknown. 
The  rock-carvings  have  been  found  abundantly  in  Bohus- 
Isen  (formerly  a  part  of  West  Gothland)  and  East  Goth- 


18  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

land,  but  also  occur  in  Scania  and  other  parts  of  Sweden. 
At  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  Cortez  in  Mexico  the  Aztecs 
were  exactly  on  the  same  standpoint.  In  spite  of  their 
high  civilization,  they  were  in  the  Bronze  Age  and  pos- 
sessed a  picture-writing,  but  were  not  acquainted  with 
an  alphabet.  In  Sweden,  as  in  Mexico,  there  certainly 
once  existed  an  oral  tradition  necessary  for  its  interpreta- 
tion, which,  now  lost,  leaves  little  hope  for  their  present 
or  future  explanation.  Yet  they  throw  considerable  light 
on  Swedish  civilization  during  this  remote  period.  Thus 
they  show  that  horses  were  already  used  for  riding  and 
driving.  Cattle  are  represented.  In  pairs  these  are  har- 
nessed to  a  plow,  which  is  being  driven  by  a  man. 
Boats  are  depicted,  generally  very  large  ones,  without 
masts,  but  with  thirty  pairs  of  oars  or  more.  They  are 
usually  unhke  at  the  two  ends,  sometimes  adorned  with 
an  animal's  head  in  the  high  and  narrow  stem,  sometimes 
with  a  similar  decoration  also  in  the  stem. 

The  rock-carvings  tell  us  nothing  of  the  dwellings  or 
the  dress  of  the  Swedes  in  the  Bronze  Age.  All  the  instru- 
ments and  tools  necessary  for  the  construction  of  wooden 
houses  existed  and  appear  to  have  been  in  use.  The  ma- 
terial was  ever  abundantly  supplied  by  the  Swedish  forests, 
but  it  was  not  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  influence 
of  time.  All  the  more  surprising  it  is  that  articles  of  dress 
from  such  a  remote  period  as  the  Earlier  Bronze  Age,  1000 
B.C.,  should  have  been  preserved  to  our  time.  Still  such 
is  the  case,  thanks  to  a  combination  of  exceptionally  favor- 
able circumstances.  These  garments  are  of  wool  of  a  very 
simple  substance;  some  have  been  worn  by  men,  others 
by  women.  The  man's  dress  consisted  of  an  unbrimmed 
cap  of  thick  woven  wool,  a  wide  circular  mantle,  a  kind 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  19 

of  tunic,  kept  together  with  a  woollen  belt,  and  some  nar- 
row strips  of  wool  which  probably  covered  the  legs.  In  a 
man's  grave  was  found  a  shawl  of  wool  with  fringes.  The 
woman's  dress  consisted  then,  as  it  does  now,  chiefly  of 
two  garments,  a  jacket  with  sleeves  and  a  long  robe,  the 
latter  held  together  with  a  belt  of  wool,  ending  in  orna- 
mental tassels.  Large  mantles,  of  mixed  wool  and  cow 
hair,  were  used  as  wraps.  The  women  wore  splendid 
bronze  ornaments,  such  as  finger-rings,  bracelets,  torques 
and  brooches.  From  the  finds  it  becomes  apparent  that 
many  women  in  those  days  carried  weapons,  a  dagger 
often  being  found  at  the  side  of  the  body. 

Besides  swords  and  axes  of  beautiful  workmanship,  fish- 
hooks, sickles  and  the  different  parts  of  harness  have  been 
found;  also  vessels  of  gold  or  bronze,  evidently  used  for 
temple  service.  The  Swedes  of  the  Bronze  Age  were  not 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  forging  the  heated  metal,  but 
they  possessed  much  technical  skill  in  the  art  of  casting. 
When  the  implement  was  taken  out  of  the  mold  it  was 
dipped  in  cold  water,  and  very  often  the  surface  was  orna- 
mented by  means  of  punches  made  of  bronze.  Their  good 
taste  was  as  highly  developed  as  their  skill.  That  the  work 
was  done  in  the  North  is  proven  by  numerous  finds  of  the 
very  molds  in  which  weapons  and  agricultural  implements 
were  cast.  During  the  Stone  Age  only  Gothaland  and  parts 
of  Svealand  were  inhabited.  The  finds  of  the  Bronze  Age 
prove  that  the  limits  of  the  population  were  about  the  same 
during  this  period.  The  southern  provinces  continued  to 
be  the  more  thickly  settled.  Twenty  times  as  many  finds 
have  been  made  in  the  soil  of  Scania  as  in  the  rest  of  the 
country.  Norrland  was  hardly  settled  to  any  extent  until 
the  Iron  Age,  and  has  offered  comparatively  few  finds  from 


20  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

the  Bronze  Age,  the  total  of  which  for  the  whole  of  Sweden 
amounts  to  about  4,000. 

The  Iron  Age  followed  upon  the  Bronze  Age.  It  lasts 
to  this  very  day,  we  ourselves  still  living  in  the  Iron  Age; 
but  the  term  is  generally  applied  to  that  part  of  the  period 
which  commences  with  the  close  of  the  Bronze  Age,  and 
ends  with  the  fall  of  heathendom.  During  the  Iron  Age, 
the  Swedes  first  became  acquainted  with  iron,  silver,  brass, 
lead,  glass,  stamped  coins  from  foreign  lands,  and  learned 
how  to  solder  and  gild  metal.  Archaeologists  have  divided 
the  period  into  two  main  parts,  the  Earlier  and  the  Later 
Iron  Age,  both  with  subdivisions.  The  Earlier  Iron  Age 
includes  the  time  from  the  fifth  century  B.C.  to  about 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  a.d.  The  first  half 
of  the  Earlier  Iron  Age  is  characterized  by  swords  with 
both  blades  and  sheaths  made  of  iron,  thin  crescent-shaped 
knives,  brooches  of  iron,  collars,  and  decorative  plates  over- 
laid with  bronze.  The  graves  resemble  those  from  the  end 
of  the  Bronze  Age,  containing  burned  bones  in  urns,  or  laid 
together  in  a  heap.  This  circumstance  makes  it  more  than 
probable  that  the  first  introduction  of  iron  in  the  North  was 
not  connected  with  any  immigration  of  a  new  people.  The 
finds  of  the  earUest  Iron  Age  are  not  very  rich,  but  they 
prove  that  the  people  who  have  left  them  behind  had  been 
subjected  to  a  very  strong  influence  from  the  Gallic  tribes 
living  close  to  the  south  of  the  Teutonic  area  of  population. 
Then  came  the  second  half  of  the  Earher  Iron  Age,  charac- 
terized by  a  strong  Roman  influence.  It  commences  with 
the  extension  of  the  Roman  empire  toward  the  North,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  winds  up  with  the 
banning  of  the  fifth  century,  when  Teutonic  migrations 
and  invasions  put  an  end  to  the  power  of  Rome.     In  the 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  21 

hostile  or  friendly  relations  between  Romans  and  Teutons 
the  Swedes  were  not  involved.  But  by  the  peaceful  ways 
of  commerce  the  influence  of  Rome  penetrated  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  North.  Great  numbers  of  Roman  coins  have 
been  found  in  Sweden,  and  also  vessels  of  bronze  and  glass, 
weapons,  etc.,  as  well  as  works  of  art,  all  turned  out  of 
workshops  in  Rome  or  its  provinces.  Out  of  about  4,760 
Roman  coins  of  this  time  found  in  Sweden,  no  less  than 
4,000  were  found  in  the  remarkable  Island  of  Gothland,  in 
the  southern  half  of  the  Baltic,  90  in  the  neighboring  island 
of  CEland,  650  in  Scania,  but  only  23  on  the  mainland  of 
Sweden,  excluding  Scania.  About  250  were  found  in 
Bornholm,  600  in  Denmark,  but  only  3  in  Norway.  It 
becomes  evident  from  these  finds  that  there  existed  a  reg- 
ular traffic  over  the  Baltic,  through  Germany,  between 
the  Island  of  Gothland  and  the  Roman  provinces,  from 
the  epoch  of  the  Marcomannic  war  down  to  the  time  of 
Septimius  Severus.  Similar  finds  have  been  made  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Baltic,  showing  that  the  traffic 
came  from  the  southeast,  along  the  valleys  of  the  Vistula 
and  the  Oder. 

One  of  the  most  important  discoveries  of  this  period  was 
the  art  of  writing,  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  North  seem 
to  have  acquired  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  earliest  alphabetic  symbols  in  Sweden,  and  the 
only  ones  used  there  during  the  whole  of  heathen  times,  were 
runes.  These  were  probably  invented  a  little  before  the 
Christian  era  by  a  South  Teutonic  tribe,  in  imitation  of  the 
Roman  writing  which  the  Teutons  received  from  one  of  the 
Celtic  tribes  living  just  to  the  north  of  the  Alps.  The  Ro- 
man characters  were  adapted  for  the  use  of  inscriptions  in 
stone  and  wood,  the  curves  being  changed  into  straight 


22  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

lines.  The  Runic  characters,  in  use  among  all  Teutonic 
tribes,  were  twenty-four  in  number;  these  older  runes 
were,  by  the  Scandinavians,  later  simplified  and  reduced 
to  sixteen.  There  is  a  number  of  inscriptions  in  older  runee 
in  Sweden,  dating  from  about  300  to  600  a.d.  They  are 
found  chiefly  on  stones  and  gold  bracteates,  also  in  Eng- 
land, France,  Germany,  Wallachia  and  the  west  of  Russia. 
All  belong  to  about  the  same  date,  and  are  of  Teutonic 
origin.  The  early  Runic  inscriptions  do  not  contain  any 
accounts  of  historically  known  persons  or  events.  Yet  they 
are  of  the  greatest  historical  importance,  for  they  show  that 
during  the  Earlier  Iron  Age,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 
ries, the  language  of  Sweden,  and  consequently  also  the 
people,  were  Teutonic.  These  inscriptions  in  Sweden  and 
neighboring  countries  give  samples  of  the  earliest  known 
form  of  the  Northern  language,  which  is  considerably 
different  from  its  descendants,  the  Old  Swedish,  Danish, 
Norwegian  and  Icelandic,  but  very  much  resembling  the 
language  spoken  by  the  Goths  on  the  Danube  during 
the  same  period. 

The  Later  Iron  Age  conamences  with  the  fifth  century 
and  stretches  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  a.d. 
When  Italy  had  been  overrun  by  the  "barbarians,"  the 
centre  of  the  old  civilization  shifted  to  Byzantium,  and 
there  are  many  traces  of  an  active  intercourse  with  the 
capital  of  the  Byzantine  rule  in  the  finds  made  in  Swedish 
soil.  Most  of  these  finds  consist  of  gold  coins  of  the  fifth 
century,  the  majority  of  them  having  been  found  in  the 
islands  of  CEland  and  Gothland.  The  stream  of  gold  com- 
ing from  Byzantium  must  have  been  quite  considerable, 
having  its  source  in  the  tribute  which  many  of  the  Byzan- 
tine emperors  had  to  pay  to  the  Goths  on  the  Danube. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  23 

They  are  the  very  same  emperors  whose  names  appear  on 
the  coins  found  in  Sweden.  The  great  number  of  costly 
and  beautiful  ornaments  of  gold  found  in  Sweden,  and  dat- 
ing from  this  period,  must  have  been  made  out  of  Roman 
and  Byzantine  coins,  melted  down.  One  of  the  largest 
hoards  of  gold  ever  found  in  Europe  was  discovered  in 
the  Swedish  province  of  Soedermanland.  Its  weight  was 
twenty-seven  pounds,  and  it  contained  several  ornaments 
of  consummate  workmanship. 

Remarkable  are  the  graves  from  this  period,  discovered 
in  the  province  of  Upland.  They  are  barrows  containing 
the  more  or  less  mouldering  remains  of  a  large  boat  in 
which  the  dead  man  has  been  buried  unbumed  with  his 
weapons,  horses,  and  other  domestic  animals.  The  swords 
found  in  these  graves  are  of  iron  with  hilts  of  beautiful 
designs  in  gilded  or  enamelled  bronze.  The  shields  and 
helmets  are  often  of  elaborate  workmanship.  Unlike  the 
swords,  which  mostly,  or  perhaps  always,  are  of  foreign, 
generally  of  Celtic  make,  these  ornaments  and  weapons  are 
of  domestic  origin. 

It  appears,  from  the  many  beautiful  and  artistic  finds  in 
Swedish  soil,  as  if  the  inhabitants  have  benefited  by  their 
situation,  aside  and  outside  of  the  rest  of  the  world.  Con- 
tinual migrations  subjected  the  tribes  of  the  continent  to 
repeated  changes  and  to  a  never-ceasing  series  of  new  and 
heterogeneous  impressions.  The  tribes  of  the  North  re- 
mained on  the  same  spot,  and  their  whole  development 
was  slower  but  more  consistent.  The  foreign  influences 
penetrated  slowly  and  gradually,  without  crushing  the  old 
civilization.  The  industrial  arts  blossomed  not  so  often  in 
the  North  as  in  the  South,  but  steadier,  giving  a  clearer 
expression    of    the    national    traditions    and    peculiarities. 


M  HISTORY   OP    SWEDEN 

These  circumstances  make  the  study  of  Northern  antiqui- 
ties of  absorbing  interest. 

Before  the  end  of  this  period,  not  only  Gothaland  and 
Svealand,  but  also  the  coast  of  Norrland,  as  far  north  as 
the  province  of  Medelpad,  were  inhabited.  As  a  whole,  the 
first  part  of  the  Later  Iron  Age  forms  a  transition  between 
the  Earlier  Iron  Age  and  the  Viking  Age,  the  archssological 
finds  of  which  we  must  leave  aside  to  take  up  the  threads 
of  the  earliest  history.  The  Viking  Age  is  exceedingly  rich 
in  stones  with  inscriptions  in  the  later  runes,  some  of  these 
inscriptions  being  quite  lengthy,  and  containing  strophes 
cf  alliterative  verse  in  Old  Swedish. 

Before  entering  into  an  account  of  early  Swedish  history, 
let  us  gather  what  information  the  classical  writers  of  his- 
tory have  to  give  in  regard  to  the  countries  of  the  North,  or 
rather  whatever  of  such  information  that  has  been  preserved 
to  our  day. 

The  Scandinavian  countries  are  for  the  first  time  men- 
tioned by  the  historians  of  antiquity  in  an  account  of  a 
journey  which  Pyteas  from  Massilia  (the  present  Marseille) 
made  through  Northern  Europe,  about  300  B.C.  He  visited 
Britain,  and  there  heard  of  a  great  country,  Thule,  situ- 
ated six  days'  journey  to  the  north,  and  verging  on  the 
Arctic  Sea.  The  inhabitants  in  Thule  were  an  agricultu- 
ral people  who  gathered  their  harvest  into  big  houses  for 
threshing,  on  account  of  the  very  few  sunny  days  and  the 
plentiful  rain  in  their  regions.  From  com  and  honey  they 
prepared  a  beverage  (probably  the  mead).  By  Thule  is 
no  doubt  meant  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  or  rather  the 
western  coast  of  it.  Pyteas  also  tells  of  the  land  of  amber, 
or  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  where  the  guttones  are 
dwelling.     As  the  northern  and  southern  shores  of  the  Bal« 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  26 

tie  from  the  very  earliest  period  seem  to  have  been  inhabited 
by  the  same  race  which  has  shared  the  same  development 
and  civilization,  there  is  every  reason  to  recognize  the  name 
guttones  as  identical  with  the  one  given  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Swedish  Gothaland  and  Island  of  Gothland. 

Several  centuries  pass  without  any  notice  of  Scandinavia 
in  the  classical  literature.  In  the  still  preserved  manuscripts 
of  the  geographical  work  by  Pomponius  Mela,  written  in  the 
middle  of  the  first  century  A.D.,  is  found  a  reference  to 
Codania,  a  large  and  fertile  island  inhabited  by  Teutons. 
Codania  is  likely  some  scribe's  misspelling  of  Scandi- 
navia. 

Pliny  the  Elder,  who  himself  visited  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic  in  the  first  century  after  Christ,  is  the  first  to  men- 
tion plainly  the  name  of  Scandinavia.  He  says  that  he 
has  received  advices  of  immense  islands  "recently  discov- 
ered from  Germany.'*  The  most  famous  of  the  many 
islands  situated  in  the  Codanian  Bay  was  Scandinavia,  (rf 
as  yet  unexplored  size;  the  known  parts  were  inhabited  by 
a  people  called  hillevioneSy  who  gave  it  the  name  of  another 
world.  When  he  speaks  of  the  British  isles,  Pliny  again 
gives  notice  of  islands,  situated  opposite  Britain  in  the 
Teutonic  Sea,  without  suspecting  their  identity  with  Scan- 
dinavia. He  mentions  Scandia,  Nerigon,  the  largest  of 
them  all,  and  Thule.  Scandia  and  Scandinavia  are  only 
different  forms  of  the  same  name,  denoting  the  southern- 
most part  of  the  peninsula,  and  is  yet  preserved  in  the  name 
of  the  province  of  Scania.  Nerigon  stands  for  Norway, 
the  northern  part  of  which  is  mentioned  as  an  island  by 
the  name  Thule.  It  is  not  surprising  to  find  the  classical 
writers  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  Scandinavia  was  not  a 
group  of  large  islands,  but  one  great  peninsula,  as  the 

XX  2 


»6  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

northern  parts  were  as  yet  uninhabited  and  their  physical 
connection  with  Finland  and  Russia  unknown. 

Tacitus  is  the  first  who  mentions  the  Swedish  name. 
In  his  work  "Germania,"  of  such  great  importance  for  the 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  Teutons,  their  conditions  and 
institutions,  and  written  about  100  years  after  Christ,  the 
Baltic  is  described  as  an  open  sea  called  the  Suevian  Sea, 
shut  out  from  the  west  by  the  Danish  mainland  of  Jutland, 
by  the  Romans  called  the  Cimbric  Peninsula.  The  eastern 
shore  is  the  country  of  amber.  The  Swedes  are  by  Tacitus 
called  Suiones,  and  he  speaks  of  them  thus: 

**Next  occur  the  communities  of  the  Suiones,  seated  in 
the  very  sea,  who,  besides  their  strength  in  men  and  arms, 
also  possess  a  naval  force.  The  form  of  their  vessels  differs 
from  ours  in  having  a  prow  at  each  end,  so  that  they  are 
always  ready  to  advance.  They  make  no  use  of  sails,  nor 
have  they  regular  benches  of  oars  at  the  sides:  they  row, 
as  is  practiced  in  some  rivers,  without  order,  sometimes 
on  one  side,  sometimes  on  the  other,  as  occasion  requires. 
These  people  honor  wealth ;  for  which  reason  they  are  sub- 
ject to  monarchial  government,  without  any  limitations 
or  precarious  conditions  of  allegiance.  Nor  are  arms  al- 
lowed to  be  kept  promiscuously,  as  among  the  other  Teu- 
tonic nations:  but  are  committed  to  the  charge  of  a  keeper, 
and  he,  too,  a  slave.  The  pretext  is  that  the  sea  defends 
them  from  any  sudden  incursions,  and  men  unemployed, 
with  arms  in  their  hands,  readily  become  licentious.  In 
fact,  it  is  for  the  king's  interest  not  to  intrust  a  noble,  a 
freeman,  or  even  an  emancipated  slave,  with  the  custody 
of  arms." 

These  remarks  by  Tacitus,  in  all  their  brevity,  are  of 
great    importance.      Boats,   exactly  corresponding    to    the 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  87 

description  as  given,  have  been  found  in  Swedi^  graves 
of  this  period,  and  that  they  were  used  for  river  traffic,  to 
bring  the  gold  and  products  of  Rome  and  Byzantium  np 
the  Vistula  and  Oder,  is  evident.  The  great  opulence 
in  dress  and  temple  service  of  which  the  archsBological 
finds  bear  witness,  and  of  which  later  writers  also  speak 
as  characteristic  of  the  Swedes,  is  a  proof  of  the  wealth 
that  at  all  times  has  attended  naval  dominion.  Thus  far 
all  the  statements  being  fully  corroborated,  one  cannot  but 
place  great  importance  upon  those  that  follow.  The  Ro- 
man historian  tells  us  that,  on  account  of  the  honor  which 
the  Swedes  held  for  wealth,  they  were  subject  to  a  mo- 
narchial  government,  without  any  limitations;  that  is,  the 
crown  was  hereditary,  not  elective.  This  coincides  in  every 
way  with  Swedish  conditions  of  political  affairs,  such  as 
we  know  them  from  later  times.  The  important  conclu- 
sions to  be  gathered  from  the  statements  of  Tacitus,  are 
that  the  Swedes  already  at  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era 
held  the  political  supremacy  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
or  at  least  in  its  eastern  and  southern  parts,  and  that  the 
various  lesser  communities  stood  in  allegiance  to  the  he- 
reditary king  of  the  Sviar  (Svear),  or  Swedes  in  a  limited 
sense,  the  inhabitants  of  Svealand. 

The  psychological  conclusions  made  by  Tacitus,  on  the 
basis  of  his  own  statements,  hold  good  of  the  Swedes  of 
to-day  as  well  as  of  those  of  2,00C  years  ago.  They  still 
honor  wealth  and  a  monarchial  government  and  consider 
the  sea  their  best  defence  against  foreign  foes. 

Ptolemy,  the  Alexandrine  geographer  of  the  second 
century  after  Christ,  speaks  of  the  Scandinavian  islands, 
situated  east  of  the  Cimbrian  peninsula.  The  fourth  and 
most  easterly  of  these  is  the  one  originaUy  called  Scandeia. 


28  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

He  enumerates  six  tribes  which  inhabit  it,  the  names  being 
unrecognizable,  except  the  one  of  Qutai,  Gauts  or  Goths, 
by  him  for  the  first  time  mentioned  as  dwelling  in  Scan- 
dinavia. 

To  this  information,  gathered  from  classical  authors, 
nothing  is  added  for  the  next  four  hundred  years  in  regard 
to  the  countries  of  the  North.  Only  in  the  sixth  century, 
when  Rome  has  succumbed  before  the  Gothic  invasions, 
and  the  Teutonic  tribes  have  divided  between  themselves 
the  provinces  of  the  West  Roman  empire,  new  information 
about  Sweden  is  given  by  a  Byzantine  author,  Prokopios, 
a  contemporary  of  emperor  Justinian.  He  mentions  Scan- 
dinavia by  the  name  Thule,  and  says  he  bases  his  state- 
ments upon  information  obtained  from  people  **who  come 
from  there." 

Prokopios  says  that  in  the  immense  island  of  Thule, 
in  the  northern  part  of  which  the  midnight  sun  can  be 
seen,  thirteen  large  tribes  occupy  its  inhabitable  parts, 
each  tribe  having  its  own  king.  One  of  the  largest  tribes 
is  the  Gauts  (the  Goetar,  or  the  inhabitants  of  Swedish 
Oothaland).  These  tribes  very  much  resemble  the  people 
of  southern  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  the  Skee  Finns, 
who  dress  in  skins  and  live  from  the  chase. 

Prokopios  tells  a  remarkable  story  about  an  immigra- 
tion to  Sweden  of  Herulians,  a  Teutonic  tribe  closely  con- 
nected to  the  Goths  on  the  Danube.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century,  it  happened  that  the  HeruHans,  after 
an  unsuccessful  war  with  the  Longobardians,  were  divided 
into  two  branches,  of  which  the  one  received  land  from  the 
emperor  Anastasius  south  of  the  Danube,  while  the  other 
made  a  resolve  to  seek  a  home  in  the  Scandinavian  pen- 
insula.    When  they  had  passed  the  Slavs,  they  came  to 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  29 

uninhabited  regions,  whence  they  continued  to  the  country 
of  the  Yarinians,  and  later  to  that  of  the  Danes.  The 
Danes  granted  them  a  free  passage  and  the  use  of  ships, 
in  which  they  crossed  to  the  island  of  Thule.  Here  the 
Herulians  went  to  the  Gauts  and  were  well  received  by 
them.  Some  decades  later  the  Herulians  in  South  Europe 
were  in  want  of  a  king.  They  resolved  to  send  messengers 
to  their  kinsmen  who  had  settled  in  Sweden,  hoping  that 
gome  descendant  of  their  old  royal  family  might  be  found 
there  who  was  willing  to  assume  the  dignity  of  king  among 
them.  The  messengers  returned  with  two  brothers  who 
belonged  to  the  ancient  family  of  rulers,  and  these  were 
escorted  by  two  hundred  young  Herulians  from  Sweden. 
That  this  immigration  really  took  place  there  is  no  doubt 
The  district  of  Sweden  where  these  kinsmen  of  the  Goths 
settled  was  early  distinguished  from  the  surrounding  ones, 
inhabited  by  the  Gauts  of  Sweden,  through  the  peculiari* 
ties  of  its  laws  and  customs,  of  which  some  survived  into 
the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century.  This  district 
forms  the  southern  part  of  the  province  of  Smaland,  called 
Vserend,  its  inhabitants  Yirdar,  and  the  adjoining  province 
of  Bleking. 

The  Gothic  historian  Jordanes,  or  Jomandes,  called 
Master  Ardan,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Prokopios,  has 
taken  upon  himself  to  explain  the  reason  of  the  strange 
resolve  of  the  Herulians  to  seek  a  home  in  Sweden.  He 
speaks  of  the  traditions  of  the  East  Goths,  which  tell  of  their 
descent  from  the  people  of  the  North.  Similar  traditions 
also  have  existed  among  the  West  Goths,  Longobardians, 
€hpid8B,  Burgundians,  Herulians,  Franks,  Saxons,  Swa- 
bians  and  Alemannians.  Thus  Jordanes:  •'In  the  North 
there  is  a  great  ocean,  and  in  this  ocean  there  is  a  large 


30  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

island  called  Scandza,  out  of  whose  loins  our  race  burst 
forth  like  a  swarm  of  bees  and  spread  over  Europe."  The 
island  of  Scandza,  he  says,  has  been  officina  gentium^ 
vagina  nationum — the  source  of  races,  the  mother  of  na- 
tions.    And  thence  also  the  Goths  have  emigrated. 

Material  is  lacking  to  prove  the  historical  truth  of  the 
Teutonic  traditions  which  point  to  Scandinavia  as  the  cradle 
of  the  Teutonic  tribes.  But  Jordanes,  the  first  historian  of 
Teutonic  birth  who  speaks  of  Scandinavia,  stands  at  the 
cradle  of  Swedish  history,  and,  as  a  modern  historian  has 
expressed  it,  his  shadow  throws  an  umbrage  across  the 
whole  field  of  Swedish  historical  research.  The  mistake, 
based  upon  Jordanes'  history,  of  identifying  the  Swedish 
Gauts  with  the  Goths  has  caused  a  great  deal  of  mischief 
and  ridiculous  chauvinism,  Gothic  and  Swedish  history  and 
royal  lines  being  mixed  up  or  put  in  connection  with  each 
other. 

In  leaving  aside  the  Teutonic  traditions  of  the  island 
of  Scandza,  or  Scania,  as  the  cradle  of  the  race,  let  us 
quote  a  remark  by  Tacitus  which  seems  to  point  to  the 
conclusion  that  such  traditions  were  current  already  in 
the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era:  **I  should  think 
that  the  Teutons  themselves  are  aborigines,  and  not  at 
all  mixed  through  immigrations  or  connections  with  non- 
Teutonic  tribes.  For  those  desiring  to  change  homes  did 
not  in  early  times  come  by  land,  but  in  ships  across  the 
boundless  and,  so  to  speak,  hostile  ocean — o,  sea  seldom 
visited  by  ships  from  the  Roman  world.'* 

The  Old  English  poem  of  Beowulf  must  also  be  men- 
tioned among  the  sources  which  throw  light  on  early  Swed- 
ish history.  Whether  the  Geatas  of  Beowulf  are  identical 
with  the  Jutes  of  Denmark,  or  with  the  Gauts  of  Sweden, 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  81 

is  a  much  disputed  question.  Although,  phonetically,  the 
Old  English  name  Geatas  corresponds  to  the  Old  Swedish 
Gautar,  it  seems  most  plausible  to  suppose  that  by  this 
term  is  meant  the  Jutes,  and  not  the  inhabitants  of  Swed- 
ish West  or  East  Gothland.  This  accepted,  the  poem  does 
not  contain  much  about  the  Swedes.  But  the  information, 
therein  given,  of  the  Swedish  kings  is  of  great  value,  be- 
cause it  renders  the  service  of  a  firm  chronological  support 
to  the  facts  gathered  from  another  source.  This  source, 
of  vastly  greater  importance,  is  the  Ynglinga  Saga,  or  ra- 
ther the  poem  around  which  it  is  spun,  in  Heimskringla, 
of  which  more  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  first  information  of  the  religion  practiced  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Scandinavia  is  given  by  Prokopios,  who  says 
that  they  worshipped  many  gods  and  spirits  of  the  sky, 
air,  earth,  sea,  and  also  some  who  were  supposed  to  dwell 
in  springs  and  rivers.  Offerings  were  constantly  made, 
the  chief  ones  being  of  human  beings,  for  which  the  first 
prisoner  made  in  a  war  was  destined.  This  sacrifice  was 
made  to  **Mars,"  who  was  the  highest  god.  The  state- 
ments of  Prokopios  without  doubt  are  correct.  The  Scan- 
dinavian war-god  who  corresponds  to  the  Mars  of  classical 
mythology  was  Tyr.  Odin,  originally  the  ruler  of  the 
wind,  became  the  highest  god  during  the  Viking  Age. 
He  is  an  aristocratic  god,  the  god  of  the  select  few,  whose 
cult  succeeded  that  of  Tyr  as  the  cult  of  the  latter  had 
succeeded  that  of  Thor,  the  thunderer,  as  the  highest  god. 
The  idea  of  a  supreme  God  was  probably  unknown  until 
the  contact  with  Christianity,  or  at  least  not  common. 
Thor,  the  peasant  god,  is  probably  the  oldest  of  the  gods 
of  Teutonic  mythology,  the  representative  of  stem  power 
and  law-bound  order.      Thor  was  the  most    popular  god 


82  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

of  the  Swedes,  to  judge  from  the  great  number  of  ancient 
Swedish  proper  names  of  which  his  forms  a  part.  Besides 
Thor,  Odin  and  Fray  were  the  most  honored.  All  the 
other  gods  and  goddesses  mentioned  in  Old  Norse  litera- 
ture were  probably  known,  but  few  of  them  much  wor- 
shipped in  Swed^i. 


CHAPTER  II 

Dawn  of  Swedish  History — Heimskringla  and 
Ynglingatal 

SNORRE  STURLESON,  the  great  historian  and  poet 
of  Iceland,  of  the  earher  half  of  the  thirteenth  cent- 
ury, is  considered  to  be  the  author  of  the  history  of 
the  kings  of  Norway  which,  after  the  first  words  of  the 
first  chapter,  has  been  called  Heimskringla.  As  an  intro- 
duction to  the  work  he  has  put  the  saga  of  the  Yngling 
kings  of  Sweden,  of  whom  many  of  the  Norwegian  kings 
were  supposed  to  be  descendants.  The  Ynglinga  Saga  is 
a  paraphrase  to  the  much  older  song  of  Ynglingatal,  a 
poem  composed  by  the  Norwegian  poet  Thiodulf  of  Hvin 
(who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century)  in  praise 
of  the  supposed  Swedish  ancestors  of  the  Norwegian  king 
Ragnvald.  The  Ynglings  were  probably  not  identical  with 
the  kings  of  Upsala,  who  were  of  the  race  of  the  Skilfings, 
but  of  South  Swedish  or  Danish  origin.  It  is  either  out 
of  ignorance,  or  out  of  sagacity,  that  the  poet  selected  the 
Upsala  rulers  as  originators  of  the  Norwegian  line  of  kings, 
but  he  has  been  unfortunate  in  the  choice  of  a  name  for 
the  dynasty.  The  poem  itself  is  a  trustworthy  historical 
document,  at  least  as  far  as  the  times  are  concerned  which 
come  comparatively  close  to  the  time  of  its  own  composi- 
tion, the  first  part  containing  many  traits  of  a  mythical 

(33) 


84  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

character.  The  saga  spun  around  it  is  far  from  trust- 
worthy. Of  the  poem  evidently  the  first,  or  first  few, 
strophes  are  missing,  but  the  "historian"  supplies  the  vac- 
uimi  with  stories  of  the  gods  Odin,  Niord  and  Frey,  whom 
he,  according  to  the  ideas  of  his  time,  changes  from  gods 
into  historic  kings,  the  first  who  ruled  Svithiod  (Sweden). 
Among  learned  men  in  Snorre's  day  there  was  a  craze  for 
tracing  the  pedigree  of  all  nations  of  any  renown  back  to 
some  of  the  heroes  of  ancient  Troy.  Snorre  serves  us  a 
saga  of  Odin's  migration  from  Troy  which,  besides  being 
confuse,  would  appear  only  ridiculous,  if  it  had  not  wielded 
about  as  highly  disastrous  an  influence  upon  correct  con- 
ceptions of  Swedish  history  as  the  work  by  Jordanes.  This 
migration  saga  is  found  in  a  still  more  elaborate  form  in 
an  introduction  to  Snorre's  Edda,  and  is  responsible  for 
the  erroneous  opinion  held  by  earlier  Swedish  historians, 
that  the  Swedes  had  migrated  from  Asia  under  the  lead- 
ership of  a  chief  who  called  himself  Odin,  and  that  the 
Swedes  and  the  Gauts  were,  if  not  of  different  origin,  at 
least  of  a  habitation  of  differing  age ,  in  their  present  loca- 
tions. 

Based  upon  the  information  found  in  Ynglinga  Saga 
we  will  give  a  review  of  the  history  of  the  early  kings  of 
Sweden,  although  the  first  dozen,  and  more,  of  these  kings 
are  of  a  doubtful* 'historic"  character.  At  the  dawn  of 
history,  Sweden  was,  like  most  other  countries  of  North- 
em  Europe,  divided  into  petty  communities,  each  ruled 
by  a  king.  These  communities  seem  to  have  been  nearly 
identical  with  the  "lands"  or  later  provinces  into  which 
Sweden  is  yet  divided,  although  the  administrative  divis- 
ions are  different.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  about  1,200 
years  since  these  communities  were  united  into  one  single 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  35 

realm,  the  inhabitants  preserve  to  this  day  their  respective 
peculiarities  of  customs  and  language. 

The  most  important  among  the  chieftains  of  Sweden 
was,  since  time  immemorial,  the  king  of  Upsala,  who  con- 
ducted the  sacrifices  and  temple  service  at  Upsala,  the 
oldest  and  most  celebrated  place  of  heathen  worship  in 
the  Scandinavian  North.  Originally,  he  had  under  his 
rule  only  one-third  of  the  present  province  of  Upland,  the 
chief  settlement  of  the  Sviar,  or  Swedes  in  a  Hmited  sense. 
The  Upsala  kings  belonged  to  the  ancient  royal  race  of 
Skilfings  (or  **Ynglings,"  according  to  Snorre),  who  traced 
their  origin  from  the  gods.  The  founder  of  the  dynasty 
as  accepted  by  Thiodulf  and  others  was  Yngve^  who  is 
said  to  have  built  the  great  temple  at  Upsala,  moving 
thither  the  capital  from  the  older  Sigtuna  and  contribut- 
ing to  the  temple  all  his  lands  and  riches.  Yngve's  son 
was  Fiolner,  King  Fiolner  was  drowned  by  accident  in 
a  huge  vessel  full  of  mead,  during  a  visit  paid  to  King 
Frode  in  Denmark. 

His  son  Sveigder  disappeared  during  a  journey  which 
he  made  in  order  to  find  Odin,  the  old.  Both  the  names 
Fiolner  and  Sveigder  appear  to  be  mythical.  Sveigder's 
son  Vanlande  was  a  great  warrior.  He  is  said  once  to 
have  taken  up  his  winter  abode  in  Finland,  which,  together 
with  several  archaeological  finds,  point  to  an  early  inter- 
course between  Sweden  and  Finland.  Vishur  succeeded 
his  father  Vanlande,  marrying  the  daughter  of  Aude  (the 
Rich),  whom  he  afterward  left  and  took  another  wife, 
bringing  on  himself  a  curse  by  so  doing.  Visbur's  sons 
fell  unexpectedly  over  him,  burning  him  in  his  house. 
Domalde,  his  son,  succeeded  him.  During  a  great  famine 
in  Svithiod  he  was  offered  to  the  gods  in  order  to  obtain 


86  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

good  seasons.  Domalde's  son  and  grandson,  Domar  and 
Dygve,  both  reigned  and  died  in  peace.  Dag,  the  son  of 
Dygv©>  was  so  wise  a  man  that  he  understood  the  language 
of  birds.  Agney  the  son  of  Dag,  was  the  ruler  after  him. 
One  summer  he  invaded  Finland  with  his  army.  Wheiv 
the  Finns  gathered  there  was  a  great  battle,  in  which 
Agne  gained  victory,  subduing  all  Finland.  The  daughter 
of  a  conquered  chief,  Skialf,  was  carried  back  to  8wede^ 
as  his  bride.  But  after  a  drinking  feast,  Agne  was  hanged 
in  a  tree  by  Skialf  and  her  men.  The  place  where  this 
happened  was  called  Agnefit,  and  is  said  to  be  identical 
with  the  site  of  Stockholm,  the  later  capital  of  the  country. 
Alrek  and  Eric  became  kings  after  the  death  of  their 
father  Agne.  They  got  into  a  dispute  one  day  while  out 
walking.  Having  no  weapons,  they  assailed  and  killed 
each  other  with  their  horses'  bridles.  Their  successors, 
Yngve  and  Alf,  the  sons  of  Alrek,  shared  a  similar  fate, 
killing  each  other  in  the  royal  hall  by  the  high-seat.  After 
them  Hugleik,  the  son  of  Alf ,  became  king  of  the  Swedes. 
On  the  Fyrisvols,  the  plains  by  the  river  Fyris  in  Upland, 
Hugleik  was  killed  in  battle  against  a  famous  sea-king 
Hake,  who  subdued  the  country  and  became  king  of 
Svithiod.  The  saga  mentions  that  this  Hake  was  a 
brother  of  Hagbard,  whose  love  for  the  king's  daughter, 
Signe,  cost  him  his  life.  This  love  story  is  one  of  the 
most  famous  in  the  North  and  much  spoken  of  in  saga 
and  song.  The  spot  where  Hagbard  was  hanged  in  a  tree 
IB  still  pointed  out.  When  Hake  had  ruled  as  king  for 
three  years,  Jorund  and  Eric^  the  sons  of  Yngve,  returned 
with  warships  and  warriors.  They  had  grown  up  and 
become  famous  by  conquering  the  king  Gudlaug,  of  the 
Haleygians  in  Norway,  whom  they  had  met  in  Denmark. 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  87 

Now  they  met  King  Hake  and  his  army  at  the  Fy^isvols. 
In  the  battle,  Eric  was  killed  and  Jorund  fled  to  his  ship. 
But  King  Hake  was  himself  so  grievously  wounded  that 
he  ordered  a  warship  to  be  loaded  with  his  dead  men  and 
their  weapons,  and  himself  to  be  placed  upon  it.  The  sails 
were  hoisted  and  the  ship  set  on  fire,  and  out  it  flew,  with 
the  dying  king  on  board,  between  the  skerries  to  the  sea. 
Jorund  now  became  king  in  Upsala.  When  he  was  one 
summer  marauding  in  Jutland,  he  met  a  son  of  King  Gud- 
laug,  in  the  battle  with  whom  he  was  overpowered,  cap- 
tured and  hanged. 

King  Aune  or  Ane  was  the  son  of  Jorund.  He  was  a 
wise  man  who  made  great  sacrifices  to  the  gods.  Being 
no  warrior  he  lived  quietly  at  home.  Twice  he  fled  from 
Upsala,  on  account  of  Danish  invasions,  remaining  in  West 
Gothland  twenty-five  years  each  time,  and  holding  sway 
at  Upsala  for  an  equally  long  time  between  his  periods  of 
exile.  He  lived  to  become  110  years  of  age.  The  secret 
of  his  longevity  was  that  he  sacrificed  one  of  his  sons  to 
Odin  every  tenth  year,  and  was  granted  in  return  a  decade 
of  prolonged  life.  When  about  to  sacrifice  his  tenth  son, 
the  people  interfered,  and  he  died  from  old  age.  The  last 
ten  years  of  his  life  he  was  very  feeble,  drinking  out  of  a 
horn  like  an  infant.     He  was  buried  in  a  mound  at  Upsala. 

King  Egil  was  the  son  of  Ane,  and,  like  his  father,  no 
warrior.  Under  his  reign  and  that  of  his  son,  king  Ottar^ 
Bweden  suffered  a  good  deal  of  trouble  from  Denmark. 
The  Danish  king  Frode  had  helped  Egil  against  the  re- 
volt of  one  of  his  subjects,  and  demanded  from  his  son  a 
scat,  or  tribute,  in  return.  Otfcar  fell  in  battle  against  the 
jarls  of  Frode.  Both  he  and  his  son  AudilSy  who  ruled 
Svithiod  after  him,  are  mentioned  in  Beowulf  as  6hthere 


88  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

and  his  son  Eadgils  of  the  royal  Swedish  line  of  the  Scyl- 
fingas  (Skilfings).  This  fact  gives  to  Swedish  history  its 
first  reliable  date.  The  Danish  king  Hugleik,  a  contem- 
porary of  King  Ottar,  died  in  515  a.  D.,  which  renders  with 
a  certainty  Ottar's  reign  as  falling  in  the  first  part  of  the 
sixth  century.  Audils  ruled  for  a  long  time  and  often  went 
on  viking  expeditions  to  Saxonland,  Denmark  and  Norway. 
In  Saxonland,  Audils  captured  the  household  of  King  Geir- 
thiof,  among  whom  was  a  remarkably  beautiful  girl,  called 
Yrsa.  The  king  married  her,  but  she  was  afterward  taken 
to  Denmark  by  King  Helge  of  Leire  after  a  successful  plun- 
dering expedition  in  Svithiod.  Helge  had  a  son  by  her, 
Rolf  Krake,  but  Yrsa  returned  to  her  first  husband,  after 
being  told  by  Queen  Alof,  the  wife  of  Qeirthiof,  that  Helge 
was  her  father  and  Alof  her  mother.  When  Rolf  Krake 
later  became  king  his  men  once  helped  King  Audils  in  one 
of  his  expeditions  in  Norway.  King  Rolf's  men  did  not 
receive  the  compensation  promised  them,  and  Rolf  came 
to  Upsala  to  demand  it  for  them.  King  Rolf  was  warned 
by  his  mother  Yrsa  that  Audils  was  not  well  disposed,  and 
he  and  his  men  made  in  haste  for  their  ships.  King  Audils 
and  his  men  started  out  in  their  pursuit.  Then  Rolf  took  a 
horn  filled  with  gold,  a  recent  gift  of  his  mother,  emptying 
its  contents  on  the  plain.  Audils  and  his  men  stopped  to 
pick  up  the  gold,  and  Rolf  thus  made  his  escape.  Rolf 
Krake  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Danish  heroes.  In  the 
poetic  language  of  the  Old  Northern  Hterature,  gold  is  often 
called  "the  seed  of  the  Fyrisvols*'  or  "Rolf  Krake's  seed.** 
As  King  Audils  once  rode  around  the  hall  at  a  sacrifice  his 
horse  stumbled  and  fell,  and  the  king  was  killed. 

Eystein^  the  son  of  Audils,  ruled  after  him  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Tngvar.     Eystein  was  never  able  to 


HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN  f9 

defend  his  people  against  the  Danes,  while  Yngvar  was  a 
successful  warrior,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  But  one 
summer  when  he  was  fighting  in  Esthonia  he  was  killed 
by  the  Esthonians.  He  was  buried  in  a  mound  close  to 
the  seashore. 

Anund  was  Yngvar's  son  and  successor.  He  went  to 
Esthonia  to  avenge  his  father,  ravaging  the  country  and 
returning  with  great  booty.  In  his  time  there  were  fruitful 
seasons  in  Svithiod.  On  this  account,  and  because  he  made 
many  roads,  cleared  the  woods  and  cultivated  the  new  land, 
he  became  one  of  the  most  popular  of  early  Swedish  kings. 
He  was  called  Broet-Anund,  viz.,  Anund  Roadmaker. 

Ingialdy  the  son  of  Anund,  became  king  in  Upsala  after 
his  father.  He  was  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  Yng- 
lings  (Skilfings),  for,  through  violence  and  cunning,  he 
united  all  the  communities  of  Sweden  into  one  realm, 
"When  his  father  died,  the  king  at  Upsala  was  certainly 
the  supremely  powerful  ruler  in  Svithiod,  but  not  the  only 
one,  for  there  were  many  district-kings  who  were  to  a  great 
extent  independent.  There  were  not  only  kings  in  East 
Gothland,  Soedermanland,  and  Nerike,  but  in  Upland  there 
were,  besides  the  Upsala  king,  also  kings  in  each  of  the 
three  *4ands"  into  which  this  province  was  formerly 
divided;  viz.,  Tiundaland,  Attundaland,  and  Fiedrunda- 
land.  Ingiald  ordered  a  great  feast  to  celebrate  the  fact 
that  he  had  come  to  the  throne  after  his  father,  and  invited 
seven  other  kings,  all  of  whom  were  present,  except  Gran- 
mar,  king  of  Soedermanland.  When  the  Brage-bowl,  on 
which  promises  were  made,  was  carried  in,  King  Ingiald 
made  a  solemn  vow  to  enlarge  his  dominions  by  one-half, 
toward  all  the  four  comers  of  the  world,  or  die.  In  the 
evening  Ingiald  set  fire  to  the  hall,  and  all  the  six  royal 


iQ  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

guests  perished  with  their  followers.  Ingiald  took  posses- 
sion of  all  the  dominions  belonging  to  the  unfortunate 
kings.  In  the  next  year  he  surrounded  the  hall  in 
which  King  Granmar  found  himself  at  the  time,  killing 
him  and  taking  his  land  in  possession.  **It  was  a  com- 
mon saying/*  Snorre  tells  us,  **that  King  Ingiald  had  killed 
twelve  kings  and  deceived  them  all  under  pretence  of  peace; 
therefore  he  was  called  Ingiald  lUrade  (the  evil-adviser).** 
His  daughter,  Asa,  was  of  the  same  disposition  as  her 
father.  She  was  married  to  Gudrod,  king  of  Scania,  but 
had  to  flee  from  the  land  after  having  caused  the  death  of 
her  husband  and  his  brother.  When  it  was  learned  that 
King  Ivar,  nephew  of  Gudrod,  had  entered  Svithiod  vnth 
an  army,  Asa  counselled  her  father  to  set  fire  to  the  hall 
of  the  king  after  his  men  were  drunk  and  asleep.  Thus 
perished  Ingiald  lUrade  with  his  daughter,  very  much  in 
the  same  fashion  in  which  he  had  killed  so  many  of  the 
petty  kings. 

For  the  centuries  following  upon  Ingiald *s  death,  Snorre 
has  a  very  short,  or  almost  no  account  to  give  about  Sweden 
and  her  rulers.  What  can  be  gathered  from  other  sources, 
principally  from  late  Icelandic  sagas,  is  not  trustworthy, 
mythical  and  fictitious  elements  being  discernible. 

After  Ingiald,  Ivar  Vidfamne  (the  Far-stretching)  is 
said  to  have  ruled  Sweden,  "also  Denmark,  Saxonland,  all 
of  Austria  and  one-fifth  of  England.*'  One  account  has 
it  that  Ivar  was  the  head  of  a  new  dynasty  in  Sweden. 
As  he  was  originally  king  of  Scania,  perhaps  these  were 
the  real  Ynglings.  Another  source  claims  for  the  suc- 
ceeding Swedish  kings  descent  from  the  old  race  of  the 
Ynglings  (via.,  the  Skilfings).  Ingiald 's  son  Olof,  accord- 
ing to  Snorre,  fled  to  the  woods  of  Vermland,  until  then 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  41 

uninhabited,  and  later  came  to  Norway.  But  it  is  a  mis- 
understanding of  Thiodulf  8  lines  which  causes  Snorre  to 
say  that  King  Olof  was  buried  close  by  the  Lake  Venar, 
in  Vermland.  The  province  of  Vermland  was  inhabited 
much  earlier  than  in  Olof's  time,  and  the  Olof  who  be- 
came the  founder  of  a  Norw^an  dynasty  was  probably 
a  Danish  prince. 

Harald  Hildetand  of  Denmark  is  said  to  have  succeeded 
Ivar,  and  to  have  ruled  over  as  much  territory  as  his  moth- 
er's father.  Several  sources  speak  of  King  Harald  and  the 
battle  of  Bravols,  in  which  his  life  was  ended  and  which 
battle  generally  is  taken  as  a  historic  milestone,  marking 
the  opening  of  the  Viking  Age.  It  was  fought  somewhere 
about  the  year  740.  King  Harald  had  become  old  and 
almost  blind.  In  Svithiod  and  West  Gothland,  the  kings 
Sigurd  and  Ring  (by  the  sagas  made  into  one  hero  by  the 
name  "Sigurd  Ring")  ruled  under  Harald,  while  he  reigned 
himself  over  Denmark  and  East  Gothland.  The  relations 
were  good  at  first,  but  their  aspect  soon  changed.  After 
great  preparations  on  either  side.  Ring  met  Harald  on  the 
plains  of  Bravik  in  East  Gothland.  The  battle  was  a  long 
and  bloody  one  and  the  most  renowned  in  song  and  saga. 
King  Harald,  too  old  to  take  an  active  part,  mounted  a 
chariot,  which  carried  him  into  the  midst  of  the  fight. 
When  King  Ring  at  last  saw  the  chariot  empty,  he  under- 
stood that  the  aged  king  had  fallen  and  gave  the  sign  that 
the  battle  should  come  to  an  end.  King  Ring  caused  the 
remains  of  his  fallen  foe  to  be  burned  with  great  pomp  and 
ceremony  on  a  pile  with  his  horse,  weapons  and  many  a 
costly  treasure  of  gold  and  silver.  King  Ring  was  said  to 
have  been  ruler  of  Sweden  and  Denmark  after  King  Harald. 
The  sagas  mention  the  hero,  Bagnar  Lodbroky  as  his  son 


48  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

and  successor.  While  this  great  viking  and  sea-king  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  historic  personage  in  the  earlier  half 
of  the  ninth  century,  it  is  impossible  that  he  could  have 
been  identical  with  King  King's  son  Ragnar,  or  that  he 
or  his  sons  ever  were  kings  in  Upsala  or  Sweden. 

With  the  first  attempts  to  introduce  Christianity  into 
Sweden  (of  which  more  later)  a  more  definite  knowledge 
of  Swedish  rulers  and  conditions  is  gained.  When  Ansgar, 
the  apostle  of  Sweden,  visited  the  country  for  the  first  time, 
about  830,  the  ruUng  king  was  Bioem,  Shortly  afterward 
King  Anund  is  mentioned.  He  fled  from  his  land,  but  was 
reinstated  with  the  help  of  the  Danes.  King  Olof  was  on  the 
throne  at  the  time  of  Ansgar's  second  visit  to  Sweden,  about 
860.  These  kings  must  have  been  of  the  same  family  as 
those  who  held  the  throne  up  to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century,  for  their  names  all  occur  again  in  the  line  of  later 
Swedish  kings,  the  reigns  of  whom  fall  in  the  broad  light 
of  history. 

We  have  seen  how  Ingiald  lUrade  joined  the  various 
communities  into  one  single  realm.  Although  there  is  doubt 
whether  this  realm  from  the  start  embraced  all  Sweden, 
there  is  no  historical  evidence  or  any  reliable  traditions 
whatever  to  show  that  Sweden  was  ever  divided  into 
smaller  kingdoms  after  the  death  of  King  Ingiald.  When 
Ansgar  reaches  Sweden  he  travels  through  half  of  the  coun- 
try in  order  to  reach  the  commercial  centre  of  Birka,  where 
the  king  of  Sweden  is  dwelling.  No  other  king,  great 
or  petty,  is  spoken  of,  while  the  contemporary  Icelanders 
mention  jarls  (earls)  in  Gothaland,  which  proves  that  the 
once  independent  kings  in  that  district  were  made  away 
with. 

Of  particular  importance  is  the  account  of  a  journey 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  43 

which  a  certain  Wulfstan  made  to  the  K"orth,  at  the  close 
of  the  ninth  century.  This  account  is  given  in  an  Old  En- 
glish translation  of  Orosii  Historia,  credited  to  King  Alfred 
of  England.  Thus  it  runs:  "Wulfstan  said  that  he  went 
from  Schleswig  to  Truso  in  seven  days,  that  the  ship  was  all 
the  way  running  under  sail.  Wendland  was  on  his  right, 
but  Langeland,  LoUand,  Falster  and  Scania  on  his  left,  and 
all  these  lands  belong  to  Denmark,  and  then  Bornholm  was 
on  our  left,  which  has  a  king  of  its  own.  Then  after  Born- 
holm,  the  lands  of  Bleking,  Moere,  CEland,  and  Gotland, 
were  first  on  our  left,  and  these  lands  belong  to  Sweden." 
"Wulfstan's  account,  besides  furnishing  evidence  to  prove 
the  political  consolidation  of  Sweden,  also  gives  a  good  idea 
of  the  size  of  the  country  in  this  period.  The  once  inde- 
pendent province  of  Scania,  which  had  kings  of  its  own, 
already  belongs  to  Denmark.  So  does  also  the  province 
of  Halland,  while  Bohuslsen  belongs  to  Norway.  Dal  and 
Vermland  are  contested  provinces  between  the  kings  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  while  great  parts  of  Norrland  are 
yet  uninhabited,  except  by  Laps,  who  ramble  from  one 
place  to  another,  without  a  fixed  dwelling  place.  In  King 
Alfred's  Orosius,  Danish  Jutland  and  Swedish  Gautland 
(Gothaland)  are  alike  called  Ootlandy  which  recalls  the 
supposition  of  the  majority  of  modem  scholars  that  Gotland 
was  in  the  earliest  times  the  common  Teutonic  name  of 
the  North,  and  Gh>ths  the  common  name  of  its  Teutonic 
inhabitants. 


CHAPTER  III 
The  Viking  Age — Ansgar,  the  Apostle  of  Sweden 

IN  the  North  there  is  a  great  ocean,  and  in  this  ocean 
there  is  a  large  island  called  Scandza,  out  of  whose 
loins  our  race  burst  forth  like  a  swarm  of  bees  and 
spread  over  Europe."  These  were  the  words  the  Gothic 
historian  Jordanes  put  on  parchment,  inspired  by  the  pop- 
ular traditions  of  a  Teutonic  migration  from  the  North. 
Historic  evidence  is  lacking  to  prove  or  disprove  the  truth 
of  these  words.  But  they  may  be  applied  to  the  phenom* 
enon  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  Viking  Age, 

The  Viking  expeditions  seem  to  stand  in  connection  with 
Ihe  great  Teutonic  migrations,  at  least  to  be  related  to 
them  in  nature.  The  Teutons  of  the  North  were  not  di- 
rectly affected  by  the  migrations,  but  at  the  close  of  the 
eighth  century  the  same  restlessness  and  desire  of  expan- 
sion appear  to  have  taken  possession  of  the  Northmen  as 
in  earlier  times  of  their  relatives  in  more  southerly  lands. 
And  it  was  a  timely  move,  for  the  energy  and  strength 
with  which  these  had  in  their  time  suffused  Europe  were 
dying  out.  Europe  was  in  need  of  new  blood  and  iron  to 
wake  her  from  her  anaemia  and  to  build  up  new  institu- 
tions. The  North  was  freed  from  a  turbulent  and  lawless 
element  and  was  brought  in  closer  contact  than  ever  before 
(44) 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  45 

with  the  learning  and  culture  of  the  world.  For  centuries 
the  Northmen  had  through  their  southern  kinsmen  been 
in  contact  with  continental  culture.  But  now  they  came 
out  to  see  for  themselves,  to  make  themselves  a  place  in 
a  wider  and  richer  world,  or  to  bring  home  from  there 
what  they  most  desired  of  beauty,  riches  and  culture. 
They  were  not  delicate  as  to  means.  Violence  was  with 
them  as  natural  as  their  freedom  of  individuality  was  in- 
dispensable. Yet  they  were  to  play  a  most  important  part 
in  the  cultural  development  of  Europe,  furnishing  her  with 
Institutions  of  imperishable  iron  and  changing  the  dark- 
ness of  the  Middle  Ages  into  an  era  of  chivalry  in  spirit 
and  in  deeds. 

The  Viking  expeditions  were  always  undertaken  by  free 
men,  and  were  in  the  North,  from  remotest  times,  consid- 
ered not  only  an  honest  but  an  honorable  occupation.  Slaves 
and  freed  men  were  excluded.  The  leaders — often  kings 
or  their  sons — were  always  men  of  noble  descent  or  of 
importance.  As  the  Viking  expeditions  took  on  larger 
proportions,  they  became  more  and  more  organized;  from 
random  expeditions,  undertaken  by  individuals,  they  de- 
veloped into  national  undertakings,  led  by  the  king  or  his 
chieftains,  not  for  a  pastime,  but  in  completion  of  a  national 
policy.  On  account  of  this  latest  aspect,  it  is  but  just  to 
divide  the  field  in  which  the  Northmen  were  active  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  nationalities.  With  such  a  division 
applied,  the  Viking  expeditions  to  the  West,  to  Britain, 
France,  Portugal  and  Spain  do  not  pertain  to  Swedish 
history,  for  they  were  planned  and  undertaken  principally 
by  Danes  and  Norwegians.  It  is  true  that  there  were  many 
Swedish  participants  also  in  these  expeditions,  as  the  sagas 
and  the  memorial  stones  on  Swedish  soil  tell  us;  also  true 


46  fflSTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

that  some  of  the  later  Swedish  provincee,  Kke  BohuslsBn* 
and  Scania,  sent  out  their  large  contingents  of  Vikings  and 
sea-kings  to  the  West,  and  that  one  of  the  oldest  Swedish 
homes  of  cnltnre,  West  Gothland,  had  an  appropriate 
channel  to  the  West,  by  way  of  the  mighty  Gotha  River, 
through  which  without  doubt  many  a  Viking  expedition 
was  sent;  yet  the  leaders  were  in  a  majority  of  cases  Dan- 
ish or  Norwegian  chieftains.  For  similar  reasons  the  Vi- 
king expeditions  to  the  East  belong  by  right  to  Swedish 
history.  In  them  the  participants  and  chieftains  WOTe 
Swedes,  to  an  overwhelming  majority,  and,  from  time 
immemorial,  Swedish  districts  from  which  the  expeditions 
were  started. 

To  Russia  the  Swedes  first  went  on  marauding  expedi- 
tions; but  after  the  coimtries  of  the  North  had  been  shaped 
Into  three  large  monarchies,  they  came  to  Russia  upon 
special  invitation,  in  order  to  found  there  a  realm  of  strong 
and  consistent  government.  This  becomes  evident  from 
the  testimony  of  the  Russian  historian  Nestor,  a  monk  in 
Kief,  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century. 
About  the  founding  of  the  Russian  empire  by  the  Swedes 
he  has  the  following  remarkable  statements: 

**In  the  year  6367  (after  the  creation  of  the  world,  which 
is  the  859th  after  the  birth  of  Christ)  the  Variagi  (or  Varan- 
gians) came  across  the  sea,  taking  tribute  from  the  Tchud 
and  the  Slavs,"  etc.— "In  the  year  6370  (862  A.D.)  they 
chased  the  Variagi  back  across  the  sea,  giving  them  no 
tribute  and  commencing  to  govern  themselves,  but  it  turned 
out  badly  with  legal  affairs,  tribe  rose  against  tribe,  caus- 


*  The  ancient  name  of  this  province,  Viken,  probably  is  the  key  to 
the  disputed  etymology  of  the  word  Viking* 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDElr  47 

ing  strife,  and  a  rebellion  was  started.  Then  they  said 
between  themselves:  *Let  us  seek  a  piince  who  will  gov- 
ern US  and  reason  with  us  justly!'  And  they  went  across 
the  sea  to  the  Variagi,  to  the  Russians,  for  thus  were  the 
Variagi  called,  just  as  others  were  called  Sviar,  others  Nur- 
manni,  others  Anglii,  and  others  Goths.  And  the  Tchudi 
(the  Slavs  of  Novgorod),  the  Slavs,  the  Krivitchi  and  the 
Vessi  said  to  the  Russians,  *Our  land  is  great  and  fruitful, 
but  it  lacks  order  and  justice;  come  and  take  possession, 
and  govern  us!'  And  three  brothers  with  their  followers 
were  selected,  and  they  took  the  whole  of  Rus  with  them 
and  came.  And  the  oldest,  Rurik,  took  his  abode  in  Novgo- 
rod, the  second,  Sineus,  his  in  Bielo-Jesero,  and  the  third, 
his  in  Isborsk;  his  name  was  Truvor.  After  two  years 
Sineus  and  his  brother  Truvor  died.  Rurik  then  took  the 
whole  power  into  his  hands  and  gave  towns  over  to  his 
men,  giving  to  one  Polotsk,  to  another  Rostof,  and  to  a 
third  Bielo-Jesero.  And  into  these  towns  the  Variagi  have 
migrated;  the  earlier  inhabitants  in  Novgorod  were  Slavs, 
in  Polotsk,  Krivitchi,  in  Rostof,  Meri,  and  in  Bielo-Jesero, 
Yessi." 

That  the  Variagi  were  of  Swedish  descent,  and  that  it 
was  they  who  gave  the  name  of  Russia  to  the  Slav  coun- 
tries, is  proved  beyond  the  possibility  of  a  doubt.  A  most 
weighty  argument  is  the  large  number  of  Swedish  names 
in  the  list  of  Variag  princes  who  reigned  in  Russia.  It 
would  not  have  been  possible  for  Nestor  to  devise  the  more 
than  one  hundred  leading  names  of  Swedish  origin  which 
occur  in  his  chronicle.  Furthermore,  it  has  been  shown  that 
there  are  fifteen  Swedish  loanwords  in  Russian.  This  is 
very  much.  Great  and  powerful  nations  have  left  behind 
a  good  deal  less  in  modern  languages,  the  Vandals  three 


48  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

words,  the  Burgundians  four  or  five,  the  Herulians  one. 
Although  the  Swedes  m  Russia  had  no  literature  in  their 
ancestral  language,  they  have  left  behind  more  words  than 
the  majority  of  Teutonic  tribes  foimding  states  and  na- 
tions. The  Old  Swedish  equivalents  to  some  of  the 
most  important  proper  names  which  meet  us  in  early  Rus- 
sian history  are  as  follows:  Rurik-=Hroerekr,  Sineus==Sign- 
jotr,  Truvor=«Tryggve,  01eg«=Helge,  01ga=Helga,  Igor- 
Inge,  Ingvar. 

For  two  hundred  years  after  Rurik,  all  the  leading  men 
in  Russian  history  carry  Swedish  names,  and  all  the  czars 
of  Russia  were  the  descendants  of  Rurik,  up  to  the  year 
1598.  The  emperor  and  historian  Constantino  Porphyro- 
genitus,  speaking  of  Russia,  makes  the  distinction  between 
the  Slavs  and  the  Russians  proper.  In  his  description  of 
the  cataracts  of  the  Dniepr,  he  gives  to  each  the  Russian 
and  the  Slav  name,  and  these  Russian  names  are  nearly 
all  understood  by  reference  to  old  Swedish  roots.  Exam- 
ples are  Gellandri  (Gellandi)=the  Noisy,  Eyf6rr=the  Al- 
ways Turbulent.  Luitprand,  the  Italian  chronicler,  speak- 
bg  of  the  Russians,  says:  *'The  Greeks  call  them  Russians, 
we  call  them  properly  Northmen."  The  annals  of  St. 
Bertinus  tell  how  Emperor  Theophilus  recommended  some 
Russian  envoys  to  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  but  how  he,  taking 
them  for  Norman  spies,  threw  them  into  prison.  The  first 
Russian  Code  of  Laws,  compiled  by  laroslaf,  presents  a 
striking  analogy  to  the  Old  Swedish  laws. 

The  Slavs  must  have  originally  borrowed  the  name  Rus- 
sian from  the  Finns,  who,  np  to  the  present  day,  call  the 
Swedes  Ruotsi.  The  name  is  in  Sweden  connected  with 
a  part  of  the  coast  of  Upland  still  called  Boslagen.  The 
etymology    of    the    name  is  Old  Swedish   rodr  (rudder) 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  49 

and  rods7nenn  (oarsmen).  Koslagen  means  ^'associations 
of  oarsmen."  The  district  is  famous  for  its  large  pecul- 
iar rowboats.  By  the  term  Russians,  the  Slavs  originally 
meant  people  from  Roslagen,  later  Sweden  in  general.  But 
when  these  Russians  had  become  the  founders  of  a  new 
empire,  south  of  the  Baltic,  it  became  necessary  to  devise 
a  new  name  for  the  inhabitants  of  Sweden.  This  name 
was  found  in  Variagi.  Only  the  Swedes  seeking  employ- 
ment as  sworn  warriors  in  the  service  of  the  new  Russian 
dynasty,  or  in  the  body-guard  of  the  Byzantine  emperors, 
were  originally  thus  called.  But  when  the  name  of  the 
new  nation  of  Swedes  and  Slavs  became  Russians,  the 
Swedes,  and  the  Scandinavians  in  general,  became  known 
as  Variagi.  The  etymology  of  the  word  has  been  given  as 
the  Old  Swedish  vdr  {sacramentum)  and  vceringar  {sao 
ramentarii,  soldiers  bound  by  oath).  The  same  name  ap- 
plied to  Swedes,  or  Northmen,  occurs  frequently  in  slightly 
altered  forms  in  Greek  and  Arabic  manuscripts. 

While  Rurik  and  his  brothers  were  building  towns, 
which  probably  means  the  fortifying  of  ancient  villages, 
two  other  Variagi,  Askold  and  Dir,  who  were  not  of  the 
family  of  Rurik,  went  down  to  Kief,  and  reigned  over  the 
Poliane.  It  was  they  who  began  the  expeditions  against 
Byzantium  in  865.  In  speaking  of  this,  Nestor  calls  the 
Bosphorus  Sud,  an  Old  Swedish  word  meaning  a  sound. 
The  Bosphorus  is  also  called  Sud  on  a  Swedish  memorial 
stone  over  a  man  who  was  killed  in  a  similar  expedition. 

Oleg,  the  fourth  brother  of  Rurik,  was  his  successor, 
his  son  Igor  being  yet  a  minor.  He  was  an  energetic  man 
and  a  great  administrator. 

Smolensk,  Lubetch  and  Kief  were  captured,  and  Askold 
and  Dir  put  to  death.     Between  the  years  879-912,  Oleg 

XX  3 


60  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

organized  the  Russian  empire.  For  the  sake  of  commerce, 
he  tried  to  preserve  peace  with  the  Greeks,  but  when  diffi- 
culties arose  he  called  in  new  armies  from  Sweden  and 
great  expeditions  started  against  Byzantium.  But  these 
Variagi  were  an  unruly  element,  and,  in  order  to  satisfy 
their  desire  for  war  and  booty,  the  Russian  rulers  always 
let  a  plundering  expedition  to  the  Caspian  Sea  follow  every 
imsuccessful  attack  upon  Byzantium;  also  when  war  with 
the  Greeks  was  avoided  through  decrees  of  peace,  expedi- 
tions to  the  Caspian  Sea  took  place. 

These  expeditions  against  the  Arabs,  who  inhabited  the 
coasts  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  were  neither  in  any  marked 
degree  successful.  Masudi  is  the  first  author  among  the 
Arabs  who  mentions  the  expeditions  of  the  Swedes.  They 
came  down  the  river  Volga  in  their  ships.  The  Arabs 
describe  the  **Rus*'  as  blond  and  "tall  as  palm-trees.'* 
The  burial  of  a  Rus  is  described  by  Ibn  Fosslan,  who  vis- 
ited Bulgaria  in  921.  *'The  hero  was  burned  in  a  ship 
with  weapons,  horses,  dogs  and  a  woman."  In  965,  the 
Israelite,  Ibrahim  Ibn  Jakub,  made  a  journey  to  Germany. 
He  tells  that  the  Arabs  in  hie  day  with  Rus  (Russians) 
meant  partly  the  Swedes  of  Sweden,  *'who  often  came  in 
ships  from  the  West  to  plunder,*'  partly  the  Swedes  settled 
in  Russia,  "who  speak  the  language  of  the  Slavs,  on  account 
of  admixture  with  them.** 

It  was  the  destiny  of  the  Swedes  in  Russia  to  exchange 
their  language  for  that  of  the  Slavs  and  finally  to  absorb 
Slav  customs.  Such  might  not  have  been  the  case  if  they 
had  been  greater  in  numbers,  or  if  their  coming  had  been 
deferred  to  a  later.  Christian  period,  when  to  a  strong  form 
of  government  would  have  been  added  a  strong  Church 
organization.      Yet  their  influence  was  greater  than  that 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  61 

of  the  Vikings  in  any  other  country,  for  the  Russian  empire 
■was  entirely  a  Northern  creation. 

To  follow  further  the  Rurik  dynasty  would  lead  us  away 
from  Swedish  into  Russian  history.  But  let  us  mention 
that  Oleg  was  succeeded  by  Rurik's  son  Igor,  who  also 
was  a  great  war-lord,  and  undertook  the  third  expedition 
of  Russians  and  Variagi  against  Byzantium.  His  widow 
was  the  celebrated  Olga,  who  was  converted  to  Christianity 
and  afterward  canonized.  She  reigned  during  the  minority 
of  her  son  Sviatoslaf,  whose  conversion  she  was  never  able 
to  effect.  Sviatoslaf 's  son  and  grandson.  Saint  Vladimir 
and  Jaroslaf  the  Great,  were  the  Clovis  and  the  Charle- 
magne of  Russia. 

Aiuer  the  conquest  of  Kief,  Oleg  commanded  a  tribute 
to  be  paid  to  the  Variagi  "for  the  preservation  of  peace.'* 
This  tribute  to  the  Swedes  was  paid  up  to  the  death  of 
Jaroslaf,  who  in  1019  gave  assurance  to  the  king  of  Upsala 
that  it  should  be  paid  regularly,  Vladimir  having  neglected 
to  do  so.  This  tribute  could  be  nothing  else  than  a  scat 
paid  to  the  king  of  Sweden  by  the  rulers  of  Russia  during 
the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  Sweden  possessed  in  those 
days  a  large  territory  south  of  the  Baltic,  which  paid  scat 
to  the  king  of  Upsala.  It  was  called  Austria  (Austerike), 
and  reference  to  it  under  this  name  is  often  made  in  sagas, 
chronicles  and  inscriptions.  Ynglinga  Saga  gives  incidents 
of  close  Swedish  connections  to  Finland  and  the  Baltic  prov- 
inces, and  archsDological  finds  point  to  Swedish  settlements 
in  Finland,  already  in  the  prehistoric  period.  Memories  of 
conquests  are  preserved  in  statements  by  the  Icelanders 
and  by  Saxo,  the  Danish  historian,  about  the  Austria  of 
which  the  Swedish  kings  Ivar  Vidfamne,  Harald  Hilde- 
tand,  "Sigurd"  Ring  and  Ragnar  "Lodbrok"  were  rulers. 


92  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Closest  to  an  exact  statement  comes  Snorre,  who  says  that 
King  Eric  Edmundson  of  Sweden  ruled  over  Finland,  Ca- 
relia,  Esthonia,  Courland  and  **wide  over  all  Austria.*' 
These  countries  belonged  to  Sweden  until  King  Olof  Skoet- 
konung  *'let  all  his  scatlands  get  away  from  him.**  The 
chronicler  Rimbert  says  that  Courland,  by  which  he  means 
the  Baltic  provinces,  in  850  belonged  to  Sweden.  Shortly 
after  this  date  fall,  according  to  Nestor,  those  of  the  first 
Swedish  contact  with  interior  Russia  (859)  and  of  the  found- 
ing of  the  Russian  empire  by  Rurik  (862).  The  Swedish 
dominion  in  the  Baltic  provinces,  as  well  as  the  early  Rus- 
sian empire,  must  consequently  have  held  a  position  similar 
to  the  one  of  Normandie  to  France  and  England. 

T>e  old  Swedish  name  for  Russia  was  Gardawke,  for 
Novgorod  Holmgard  and  for  Byzantium  Miklagard,  which 
mean  "Coimtry  of  towns,'*  "Island  town,**  and  ** Great 
town,**  respectively. 

Vladimir  of  Russia,  in  980,  sent  a  number  of  Variagi 
to  the  emperor.  But  already  the  emperors  had  prob- 
ably surrounded  themselves  with  a  small  standing  army 
of  Variagi  or  Barangoi,  as  they  were  called  by  the  Greeks. 
They  were  treated  with  a  good  deal  of  respect  and  consid- 
eration, and  in  the  North  it  was  considered  a  distinction  to 
have  served  in  Miklagard,  which  even  the  sons  of  kings 
eagerly  sought  for.  Soon  not  only  Swedes,  but  also  Nor- 
wegians, Danes  and  Icelanders  were  attracted,  and  Ice- 
landic sources  have  a  good  many,  in  part  wildly  exag- 
gerated, accounts  of  the  Variagi  and  their  experiences  in 
Miklagard.  The  Northmen  were  relied  upon  to  support  the 
tottering  empire,  and  were  despatched  to  the  points  where 
the  hardest  combats  were  fought.  They  had  officers  of  theii 
own  nationality,  and  the  strictest  discipline  was  maintained. 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  53 

About  the  year  1050  a  detachment  of  Variagi  were  accepted 
into  the  body-guard  of  the  emperor,  surromiding  his  person 
on  all  great  occasions  and  in  public ;  also  keeping  watch  over 
the  imperial  palace.  When  the  emperor  died,  they  had, 
according  to  Snorre,  the  privilege  of  passing  through  his 
treasury,  each  taking  along  all  he  could  carry  off.  Another 
privilege  of  theirs  was  that  they  were  allowed  to  keep  their 
heathen  faith  in  the  midst  of  the  Christian  surroundings. 

Many  and  various  as  the  reasons  for  the  Viking  expedi- 
tions must  have  been,  the  principal  cause  that  led  to  their 
abolition  was  the  contact  with  Christianity  abroad,  and  the 
introduction  of  its  teaching  in  the  heathen  JSTorth.  The  first 
missionaries  to  Sweden  were  sent  by  Louis  the  Pious,  but 
Christianity  was  not  entirely  unknown  before  their  arrival. 
For  centuries,  the  Swedes  had  through  commercial  expedi- 
tions stood  in  direct  or  indirect  contact  with  the  Christian 
world,  £uid  this  had  brought  home  some  knowledge  of  **the 
white  Christ"  and  his  gospel  of  peace.  Many  Northmen 
had  been  baptized  while  dwelling  in  foreign  lands,  and 
many  must  the  Christian  thralls  have  been  who  contin- 
ually were  brought  into  the  country.  The  influence  these 
elements  exerted  probably  could  be  traced  to  the  ennobling 
and  developing  of  heathen  myths,  rather  than  to  direct 
Christian  conversions.  And  a  similar  influence  of  Roman 
and  Greek  myths,  without  doubt,  exerted  upon  the  North 
in  earher  historic  times. 

Ansgar,  a  learned  and  pious  monk  from  the  convent  of 
Corvey,  became  the  apostle  of  Sweden.  He  had  spent  two 
years  in  Denmark  as  a  missionary  when  called  upon  by 
Emperor  Louis  to  visit  Sweden.  Louis  the  Pious  had  re- 
ceived the  assurance  by  Swedish  emissaries  that  the  new 
faith  would  not  meet  with  any  obstacle^  and  that  many 


04  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

were  willing  to  embrace  it.  Ansgar  started  in  the  year  of 
830,  accompanied  by  Witmar,  also  of  the  Corvey  convent. 
They  were  well  received  by  King  Bioern,  and  were  able  to 
comfort  many  Christians  in  Swedish  captivity,  besides  con- 
verting some  of  the  inhabitants.  Among  the  c  3n verts  was 
the  powerful  Jarl  Herger,  who  for  a  long  period  was  the 
chief  supporter  of  Christianity  in  Sweden.  After  about  a 
year  and  a  half,  Ansgar  and  Witmar  returned  to  the  em- 
peror, who,  satisfied  with  the  result  of  their  mission,  erected 
a  special  archbishopric  in  Hamburg  for  the  spiritual  needs 
of  the  North.  Ansgar  was  made  the  archbishop  and,  with 
Ebo,  archbishop  of  Rheims,  apostolic  legate  among  Swedes, 
Danes  and  Slavs.  At  the  same  time,  Gauzbert  was  made 
the  first  bishop  of  Sweden  under  the  name  of  Simon.  He 
went  to  Sweden  and  was  well  received  by  its  king  and  peo- 
ple. But  a  revolt  against  the  new  faith  soon  rose  among 
the  heathens,  not  issuing  from  the  king  but  from  the  people. 
Gauzbert  was  captured  and  with  contumely  escorted  out  of 
the  country,  while  his  relative,  Nithard,  was  killed,  thus 
becoming  the  first  Christian  martyr  in  Sweden.  For  seven 
years  the  country  was  without  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel, 
until  Ansgar  sent  thither  a  new  missionary,  Ardgar,  who 
stayed  there  preaching  until  the  death  of  Herger.  In  the 
meantime  Vikings  had  destroyed  Hamburg,  and  not  before 
its  bishopric  had  been  united  to  that  of  Bremen  was  Ansgar 
in  a  position  to  visit  Sweden  for  a  second  time.  This  he 
effected  early  in  the  fifties  of  the  ninth  century,  coming  this 
time  as  a  kind  of  ambassador  from  the  kings  of  Denmark 
and  Germany  to  give  more  importance  to  his  mission.  The 
heathen  partisans,  who  recently  had  accepted  the  departed 
King  Erie  among  the  gods,  resented,  and  the  reigning  king, 
Olof,  dared  not  grant  Ansgar  the  right  to  preach.     The  dif- 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  55 

ficulty  was  solved  through  the  ancient  custom  of  throwing 
dice.  Ansgar  was  successful  in  the  proceedings,  and  his 
cause  was  then  brought  before  the  Thing  (or  Assembly)  for 
deliberation.  The  people  decided  that  permission  should 
be  granted  to  preach  the  Gospel,  principally  on  the  grounds 
set  forth  by  an  old  man  who  rose  to  remind  the  Thing  that 
the  new  God  had  already  helped  a  good  many,  and  that 
it  was  a  good  thing  to  have  him  to  fall  back  on  when  the 
old  gods  failed.  After  having  built  churches  and  baptized 
a  great  number,  Ansgar  returned  home,  leaving  behind 
Erimbert,  a  relative  of  Gauzbert*s.  Archbishop  Rimbert 
was  Ansgar's  successor,  himself  visiting  Sweden.  After 
his  death,  the  archbishops  of  the  North  seem  to  have 
ceased  taking  interest  in  Swedish  missions.  The  little 
church,  left  to  itself,  soon  succumbed.  When  at  last  one 
of  the  archbishops,  Unne,  woke  up  to  the  necessity  of  visit- 
ing Sweden,  he  found  that  the  Gospel  was  forgotten.  He 
was  himself  surprised  by  death  while  in  Sweden,  and  buried 
in  the  town  of  Birka,  in  936.  Numerous  graves  of  the 
earlier  Christians  in  Sweden  have  been  found  on  the  site 
of  the  old  commercial  centre  of  Birka  in  the  island  Bioerkoe, 
in  the  Lake  Mselar,  unburned  bodies  in  wooden  coffins,  and 
the  graves  without  mounds. 

King  Eric  Edmundson  was  a  contemporary  of  Rimbert. 
He  was  engaged  in  building  up  a  Swedish  dominion  in  Fin- 
land and  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic.  With  King 
Hiirald  Fairhair  of  Norway  he  was  disputing  the  suprem- 
acy over  the  province  of  Vermland.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Bioern,  who  is  said  to  have  reigned  for  fifty  years. 
Olof  and  Eric,  Bioern's  two  sons,  succeeded  him,  the  former 
dying  suddenly  at  a  banquet.  His  young  son,  Styrbicern 
Starke  (the  Strong),  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Swedish 


•6  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

heroes,  demanded  bis  share  of  the  kingdom  when  only 
twelve  years  old.  When  King  Eric  told  him  he  was  yet 
too  yomig,  Styrbioern  two  springs  in  succession  installed 
himself  on  the  mound  of  his  father,  by  so  doing  making 
claim  upon  his  inheritance,  according  to  old  usage.  But 
when  he  came  to  the  Thing  to  demand  his  share  in  the  gov- 
ernment he  was  chased  away  with  stone-throwing.  King 
Eric  gave  him  sixty  ships  with  men  and  weapons  to  try  his 
luck  in  Viking  expeditions.  Styrbiodm  won  great  fame 
during  several  years  of  continual  warfare  in  the  Baltic, 
capturing  the  mighty  Jomsborg,  a  celebrated  Viking  nest 
in  the  island  of  Wollin,  later  turning  his  weapons  upon 
Denmark,  where  he  made  the  Danish  king  Harald  Gormson 
Bluetooth  a  prisoner.  He  now  felt  strong  enough  to  attack 
his  uncle.  King  Eric.  Harald  Bluetooth  was  to  help  him, 
but  failed  to  do  bo.  StyrbioBrn  sailed  with  a  fleet  to  Swe- 
den; after  having  landed  he  burned  his  ships  to  make  a 
return  impossible.  King  Eric  met  him  at  the  Fyrisvols 
and  fought  a  battle  which  was  said  to  have  lasted  for 
three  days.  Styrbioern  fell,  and  with  him  the  larger  part 
of  his  army.  His  uncle,  the  king,  was  after  this  called 
Eric  Segerscell  (the  Victorious).  After  the  battle  the  king 
ascended  a  high  mound,  promising  a  great  compensation  to 
the  one  who  could  compose  a  song  in  praise  of  the  victory. 
The  Icelander  Thorvald  Hialte,  who  never  previously  or 
afterward  appeared  as  a  scald,  came  forth  and  recited  two 
strophes  which  are  preserved  to  our  day,  receiving  a  costly 
armlet  of  gold  as  reward.  This  battle — ^next  to  the  one  at 
Bravols,  the  most  famous  in  the  heathen  North— was  fought 
in  988. 

King  Eric  invaded  Denmark  and  took  possession  of  the 
country,  making  the  sozi  of  Harald  Bluetooth  an  exile,  to 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  67 

which  facts  Saxo,  the  Danish  historian,  testifies.  In  Den- 
mark Eric  was  baptized,  the  first  Swedish  king  about  whom 
this  is  said.  But  upon  his  return  to  Sweden  he  also  returned 
to  the  old  gods.  Eric  Segerssell  was  king  of  Sweden  and 
Denmark  xmtil  his  death,  which  occurred  in  994.  His  first 
consort,  Sigrid  Storrada  (the  Proud),  from  whom  he  later 
separated,  played  quite  an  important  part  in  the  history  of 
her  time.  After  the  death  of  Eric,  she  married  the  exiled 
Svend  Tjufvusksegg  (their  son  being  Canute  the  Great), 
who  through  this  matrimony  came  to  the  throne  of 
Denmark. 

Olof  Skoetkonung,  the  son  of  Eric  and  Sigrid,  succeeded 
his  father.  His  surname  is  supposed  to  mean  **the  lap 
king,"  but  he  was  no  longer  a  minor  at  the  death  of  King 
Eric.  King  Olof  was  not  a  powerful  or  energetic  ruler,  like 
the  father.  He  let  go,  one  after  the  other,  the  lands  of  his 
crown.  Denmark  regained  its  independence,  and  he  lost 
also  the  scat-paying  dominions  south  of  the  Baltic.  Shortly 
after  Olof  ascended  the  throne,  the  Norwegian  king,  Olaf 
Tryggvason,  had  demanded  Sigrid  Storrada  in  marriage 
and  obtained  her  consent.  But  when  King  Olaf  asked  her 
to  become  a  Christian,  she  refused  to  change  faith,  where- 
upon he  insulted  her.  Sigrid  told  him  that  this  should 
cause  his  death.  Two  years  later,  when  Sigrid  was  the 
wife  of  King  Svend  of  Denmark,  she  prevailed  upon  her 
son  and  her  husband  to  join  hands  in  assailing  Olaf  Trygg 
vason,  who  was  expected  back  from  an  expedition  to  the 
lands  of  the  Vends.  The  compact  was  made,  and  the 
Norwegian  jarls,  Eric  and  Svein,  entered  it.  These  all 
collected  an  immense  fleet,  which  assailed  the  unsuspecting 
Olaf  at  Svolder,  close  by  the  coast  of  Pomerania.  The 
Norwegian  king  lost  the  day  and  his  life.     This  famous 


68  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

battle  was  fought  in  1000,  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark also  taking  a  personal  part  in  it.  Norway  was  divided 
between  the  victors.  The  Swedish  king  received  as  his 
share  the  districts  of  Drontheim  and  Bohuslsen.  These  he 
granted  to  Jarl  Svein,  who  was  the  betrothed  of  his  sister 
Holmfrid.  Fifteen  years  later  they  were  recaptured  by  the 
Norwegian  king. 

Olaf  Tryggvason  had  been  a  devout  Christian.  His 
Bister  Ingeborg  was  married  to  Jarl  Ragnvald  of  West 
Gothland,  who  was  baptized  and  invited  Christian  mission- 
aries to  Sweden.  Through  such  influences  King  Olof  Skoet- 
konung  was  at  last  converted  and  baptized  by  Sigfrid,  a 
German  missionary,  at  Husaby  in  West  Gothland,  in  the 
year  1008.  Sigfrid,  who  has  been  supposed  to  be  of  En- 
glish parentage  and  a  bishop  of  York,  evidently  came  from 
Germany.  He  preached  for  a  long  period  in  West  Goth- 
land and  Vserend,  in  the  latter  district  once  being  attacked 
by  heathen  men,  who  killed  three  of  his  companions.  King 
Olof  himself  saw  to  it  that  the  murderers  were  punished, 
and  Sigfrid  continued  his  noble  work  without  molestation. 
He  was  later  worshipped  as  a  saint.  Among  other  mission- 
aries who  were  active  in  converting  the  various  provinces 
may  be  mentioned  the  Anglo-Saxon  St.  David,  the  apostle 
of  Westmanland,  the  Anglo-Saxon  St.  Eskil  and  the  Swede 
St.  Botvid,  the  apostles  of  Soedermanland,  and  the  German 
Stenfi,  or  Simon,  the  apostle  of  Norrland.  St.  David  was 
a  contemporary  of  St.  Sigfrid,  while  the  others  were  a  few 
generations  younger.  It  was  first  through  influence  from 
England  and  Denmark,  during  the  reign  of  Canute  the 
Great,  that  Swedish  conversions  became  more  widespread 
and  general. 

King  Olof 's  conversion  met  with  a  great  deal  of  opposi- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  59 

tion,  especially  in  Svealand,  which  longest  remained  hea- 
then. Upsala,  with  its  temple,  was  the  heathen  strong- 
hold of  the  North,  and  there  the  king  had  always,  as  one 
of  his  principal  duties,  to  preside  over  the  great  sacrifices. 
King  Olof  was  forced  to  accept  the  decision  of  a  Thing 
which  granted  him  freedom  to  select  some  part  of  the  king- 
dom wherein  to  build  churches  and  perform  the  duties  of 
the  new  cult,  but  which  forbade  him  to  use  his  influence 
toward  the  conversion  of  his  subjects.  For  this  reason 
Olof  dwelt  principally  in  the  more  and  more  christianized 
West  Gothland,  in  the  capital  of  which  province,  Skara, 
a  bishop  was  installed.  The  name  of  the  first  bishop  was 
Turgot.  Only  after  more  than  two  centuries  of  endeavor 
was  the  Christian  Church  firmly  established  in  Sweden,  in 
the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century;  but  even  at  that  time 
the  great  mass  of  the  people  were  heathen  in  name.  The 
heathen  party  was  so  strong  that  it  could  for  a  long  time, 
and  occasionally  with  success,  keep  up  the  battle  against 
Christianity.  It  took  yet  another  century  before  the  com- 
plete victory  of  Christianity  was  an  assured  fact. 

The  reasons  for  the  slow  progress  of  Christianity  in 
Sweden  were  many,  the  principal  one  not  being  an  opposi- 
tion to  the  Christian  doctrines.  The  superstitious  change 
easily  from  one  cult  to  another.  The  sceptics  do  not  believe 
more  in  one  god  than  in  another.  Of  heathen  sceptics 
there  were  a  great  many  in  the  North  who  believed  in  noth- 
ing else  than  their  own  strength.  But  it  was  the  Christian 
morals  which  were  so  difficult  for  the  Swedes  to  accept. 
Accustomed  to  great  personal  liberty,  they  could  not  en- 
dure the  restraint  which  Christian  morals  placed  upon  the 
individual.  The  verv  snirit  of  Christianity,  with  its  kind- 
liness and  meekness,  was  not  attracnve  to  the  Northman, 


wo  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

who  in  his  own  mental  and  physical  force  found  a  tower 
of  strength.  The  period  of  the  first  attempts  at  conver- 
sion was  not  well  chosen.  The  whole  North  was  inflamed 
by  the  Viking  rage  for  war  and  plunder.  Then  followed 
a  period  of  disinterestedness  when  the  good  seed  was  sown 
but  the  field  neglected.  Later  the  too  arduous  zeal  of  the 
priests  called  forth  criticism  and  resistance  from  the  Swedes, 
so  tardy  in  making  a  decision  and  so  careful  in  weighing 
reasons  for  and  against. 

To  this  must  be  added  the  great  prestige  of  the  Upsala 
temple  as  the  heathen  arc  of  worship  in  the  North,  and  the 
influence  of  the  scalds  and  saga  men  of  Iceland.  Iceland 
was  discovered  in  870,  and  settled  principally  by  Norsemen 
from  the  British  Isles  and  from  the  western  coast  of  Nor- 
way, but  also  to  some  extent  by  Swedes  and  Danes.  Sud- 
den and  brilliant  was  the  rise  of  Icelandic  culture,  and 
Icelandic  scalds  overran  the  whole  territory  of  the  North. 
At  the  court  of  every  king  and  jarl  these  were  at  home, 
sometimes  in  great  numbers,  and  soon  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  native  poets.  For  their  poetry,  both  as  to  contents  and 
form,  they  were  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  heathen  myths 
and  traditions,  and  the  result  of  their  popularity  must  have 
been  a  perfect  heathen  revival  in  those  days  of  growing 
scepticism.  Through  intercourse  with  Christians  in  Britain, 
the  Icelanders  had  borrowed  many  a  noble  trait,  and  their 
taste  found  admirers  in  the  old  North,  where  such  influ- 
ence must  have  been  felt  through  centuries  of  indirect  con- 
tact with  lands  of  classical  or  Christian  culture.  We  are 
told  of  the  great  number  of  southern  coins  found  in  Swed- 
ish soil.  Which  travel  further  and  faster,  thoughts  or 
coins,  and  which  are  the  more  impressionable?  So  although 
it  would  be  unjust  to  deprive  the  Icelandic  poetry,  the  im- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  61 

pressive  and  grand  Eddie  songs  and  the  more  artificial 
court-poetry,  of  any  of  its  beauty  or  originality,  it  is  not 
right  to  ascribe  all  the  culture,  whose  blossom  it  is,  to  Ice- 
land, or  Iceland  and  Norway,  to  the  exclusion  of  Sweden 
and  Denmark,  or  the  Teutonic  world  at  large.  Good  epic 
poetry  has  been  written  all  over  Teutondom.  In  Sweden 
strophes  in  the  very  metre  of  the  majority  of  Eddie  poems 
have  been  found  on  tombstones.  In  the  same  manner  with 
the  contents  of  the  Eddie  poems.  Granting  important  ex- 
ceptions, we  think  that  the  heathen  myths  have  been  the 
same  in  the  East  as  in  the  extreme  West.  The  very  fact 
that  Icelandic  court-poetry  was  accepted  and  enjoyed  by 
continental  chieftains  presupposes  a  thorough  knowledge 
and  mastery  of  the  more  popular  poetry  of  Eddie  songs  of 
gods  and  heroes. 

Hence  the  revival  of  heathendom  in  the  North,  by  which 
a  king  like  Olof  Skcetkonung  for  a  long  time  was  influ- 
enced, finding  his  chief  delight  in  the  association  with  poets 
and  saga  men. 

In  Norway,  Olaf  Haraldson  had  ascended  the  throne, 
and  he  put  an  end  to  Swedish  dominion  in  the  Norwegian 
districts.  This  caused  strife,  and  also  considerable  annoy- 
ance to  the  provinces  touching  the  frontier.  Popular  feel- 
ing rose  high  in  Sweden,  when  the  demands  for  a  peace 
guarantee  with  Norway  were  disregarded  by  King  Olof. 
Jarl  Ragnvald  sided  with  the  people,  desiring  a  union  be- 
tween the  Norwegian  king  and  King  Olof  *s  daughter  In- 
gegerd.  At  a  great  Thing  held  in  Upsala,  in  1018,  King 
Olof  listened  to  Norwegian  emissaries  pleading  for  peace 
and  a  royal  marriage.  Jarl  Ragnvald  complained  of  the 
annoyance  caused  to  his  people  of  West  'Gothland.  King 
Olof  became  indignant,  but  was,  through  the  forcible  yet 


e%  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

dignified  appeal  for  peace  by  Torgny,  the  lagman  (justice) 
of  Tiundaland,  compelled  to  a  promise  of  peace  and  a  con- 
cession of  marriage.  But  the  king  did  not  keep  his  prom- 
isee. A  betrothal  was  arranged  but  soon  annulled  by  Olof, 
and  the  Norwegian  king  was  in  vain  expecting  his  prom- 
ised bride.  At  the  instigation  of  Jarl  Ragnvald,  Olaf 
Haraldson  married  King  Olof 's  illegitimate  daughter  Astrid. 
As  this  was  done  without  the  consent  of  her  father,  Eagn- 
vald  dared  not  remain  in  Sweden.  He  went  to  Gardarike 
(Russia),  where  he  died  shortly  afterward,  in  1019,  hia 
widow,  the  princess  Ingegerd,  in  Novgorod  becoming  the 
wife  of  the  Russian  ruler  Jaroslaf. 

In  Sweden,  trouble  was  brewing  against  the  king,  who 
had  broken  faith  with  his  people,  and  in  order  to  avoid 
open  revolt  King  Olof  was  forced  to  divide  his  power  with 
one  of  his  sons,  who,  although  yet  a  minor,  was  solemnly 
elected  king.  He  had  in  baptism  received  the  name  of 
Jacobs  which  so  displeased  his  heathen  subjects  that  it  was 
changed  to  Anund.  King  Olof  also  agreed  to  maintain 
peace  with  Norway,  meeting  his  son-in-law  at  Konghsell, 
in  Bohuslsen,  in  1019,  for  a  peace  agreement.  King  Olof 
died  two  years  later  and  was  buried  by  the  church  of 
Husaby,  where  he  was  baptized.  He  was  the  first  king 
who  introduced  coinage  into  Sweden.  The  earliest  coins 
were  made  of  silver  by  Anglo-Saxons  settled  in  Sigtuma, 
and  resemble  closely  Anglo-Saxon  coins  of  the  same  period  o 
After  the  death  of  his  father  King  Anund  ruled  alone. 
He  entered  into  an  alliance  with  his  brother-in-law  of  Nor- 
way against  Canute,  who  now  was  king  both  of  Denmark 
and  England.  During  Canute's  absence,  Anund  and  Olaf 
invaded  Denmark.  In  the  subsequent  strife  between  Olaf 
Gmd  Canute,  Anund  took  no  active  part.     King  Olaf  had 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  63 

to  flee  to  Russia.  Upon  his  return  he  gathered  an  army 
in  Sweden,  with  the  help  of  Anund,  and  entered  Norway 
through  Jemtland.  At  Stiklastad  he  met  the  much  superior 
Norwegian  army,  and  lost  his  battle  and  his  life,  in  1030. 
After  his  death,  the  sentiment  in  Norway  changed  radi- 
cally, and  he  was  worshipped  as  a  saint  throughout  the 
North. 

Of  Anund's  reign  little  is  known.  Adam  of  Bremen, 
an  ecclesiastic,  whose  history  of  the  diocese  of  Hamburg 
and  Bremen,  during  the  period  788-1073,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  sources  of  Swedish  history  in  heathen  times,  says 
of  Anund:  "Young  in  years,  he  excelled  in  wisdom  and 
piety  all  his  predecessors ;  no  king  was  more  beloved  by  the 
Swedish  people  than  Anund."  The  historian  gives  as  his 
authority  the  Danish  king  Svend  Estridsen,  who  as  an 
exile  stayed  at  Anund's  court.  Anund  died  in  1050  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  older  half-brother  Emundj  surnamed 
the  Old,  He  was  the  son  of  a  freed  woman,  the  daughter 
of  a  Vendish  chief.  For  this  reason  he  had  been  passed 
over  at  the  first  election.  Emund  was  educated  by  his 
mother's  relatives,  was  baptized,  but  was  not  much  of  a 
Christian.  He  was  popular  neither  with  the  new  Christian 
church  nor  with  the  people  at  large.  Emund's  unpopu- 
larity with  the  masses  was  caused  by  an  agreement  with 
Denmark  in  regard  to  the  boundaries  when  he  ceded  the 
province  of  Bleking.  Emimd  died  in  1060.  With  him 
the  old  royal  line  became  extinct.  A  new  line  comes  to 
the  throne  of  Sweden,  where,  with  the  general  acceptance 
of  Christianity,  a  new  era  commences. 


CHAPTER    IV 

Early   Christian  Era — StenkiVs  Line  and  Interchange 
ing  Dynasties 

THE  sources  of  Swedish  history  during  the  first  two 
centuries    of    the    Middle   Ages    are   very   meagre. 
This  is  a  deplorable  fact,  for  during  that  period 
Sweden   passed    through  a  great  and    thorough  develop- 
ment, the  various  stages  of  which  consequently  are  not 
easily  traced, 

Before  th  year  of  1060  Sweden  is  an  Old  Teutonic 
state,  certain  /  of  later  form  and  a  larger  compass  than 
the  earliest  of  such,  but  with  its  democracy  and  its  elec- 
tive kingdom  preserved.  The  older  Sweden,  such  as  it 
had  existed  at  least  since  the  days  of  Ingiald  Illrade,  was 
in  regard  to  its  constitution  a  rudimentary  union  of  states. 
The  realm  had  come  into  existence  through  the  cunning 
and  violence  of  the  king  of  the  Sviar,  who  made  away 
with  the  kings  of  the  respective  lands,  making  their  com- 
munities pay  homage  to  him.  No  change  in  the  interior 
affairs  of  the  different  lands  was  thereby  effected;  they 
lost  their  outward  political  independence,  but  remained 
mutually  on  terms  of  perfect  equality.  They  were  united 
only  through  the  king,  who  was  the  only  centre  for  the 
government  of  the  union.  No  province  had  constitution- 
ally more  importance  than  the  rest,  no  supremacy  by  one 
(64) 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  65 

over  the  other  existed.  On  this  historic  basis  the  Swedish 
realm  was  built,  and  rested  firmly  until  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  Old  Swedish  state- 
organism  the  various  parts  thus  possessed  a  high  degree 
of  individual  and  pulsating  hf e ;  the  empire  as  a  whole  was 
ftlso  powerful,  although  the  royal  dignity  was  its  only  in- 
stitution. The  king  was  the  outward  tie  which  bound  the 
provinces  together;  besides  him  there  was  no  power  of 
state  which  embraced  the  whole  realm.  The  affairs  of 
state  were  decided  upon  by  the  king  alone,  as  in  regard  to 
war,  or  he  had  to  gather  the  opinion  of  the  Thing  in  each 
province;  any  imperial  representation  did  not  exist  and 
was  entirely  unknown,  both  in  the  modern  sense  and  in 
the  form  of  one  provincial,  or  sectional,  assembly  deciding 
for  all  the  others.  The  latter  form  is  one  of  transition,  the 
modern  form  the  ripe  fruit,  both  brought  out  by  the  his- 
toric development.  In  society  there  existed  no  classes.  It 
was  a  democracy  of  free  men,  the  slaves  and  freed  men  en- 
joying no  rights.  The  first  centuries  of  the  Middle  Agee 
were  one  continued  process  of  regeneration,  the  Swedish 
people  being  carried  into  the  European  circle  of  cultural 
development  and  made  a  communicant  of  Christianity. 
With  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century  Sweden 
comes  out  of  this  process  as  a  mediaeval  state,  in  aspect 
entirely  different  to  her  past.  The  democratic  equality 
among  free  men  has  turned  into  an  aristocracy,  with  aris- 
tocratic institutions,  the  hereditary  kingdom  into  an  elec- 
tive, or,  at  least,  into  one  close  upon  turning  into  an  elective, 
kingdom,  while  the  provincial  particularism  and  independ- 
ence have  given  way  to  the  constitution  of  a  centralized, 
monopolistic  state.  No  changes  could  be  more  fnnda* 
J^ientaL 


66  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

For  lack  of  sources  the  historians  were,  until  quite  re- 
cently, led  to  the  belief  that  the  change  was  due  to  one 
tribe  in  gaining  the  ascendency  over  another,  the  political 
supremacy  changing  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  an- 
other. The  epoch  was  called  '*The  Struggle  between 
Swedes  and  Goths,**  "The  Struggle  about  the  election  of 
kings  between  Swedes  and  Goths.**  Now  it  is  generally 
admitted  that  the  struggle  was  between  principles,  not  be- 
tween tribes.  The  circumstances  sometimes  were  such  that 
one  section  or  province  opposed  others,  but  these  divisions 
never  were  identical  or  at  all  depended  upon  racial  or  tribal 
conditions.  It  was  a  struggle  between  heathendom  and 
Christianity,  democracy  and  aristocracy,  provincial  partic- 
ularism and  centralized  state  unity. 

The  old  provincial  laws  of  Sweden  are  a  great  and  im- 
portant inheritance  which  this  period  has  accumulated  from 
heathen  times.  The  laws  were  written  down  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  but  they  bear  every  evi- 
dence of  high  antiquity.  Many  strophes  are  found  in  them 
of  the  same  metre  as  those  on  the  tombstones  of  the  Viking 
Age  and  those  in  which  the  songs  of  the  Edda  are  chiefly 
written.  In  other  instances  the  text  consists  of  alliterative 
prose,  which  proves  its  earlier  metrical  form.  The  expres- 
sions have,  in  places,  remained  heathen,  although  used  by 
Christians,  who  were  ignorant  of  their  true  meaning,  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  following  formula  of  an  oath,  in  the  "West 
Gothic  law:  **Sva  se  mer  gud  hull**  (So  help  me  the  gods). 
The  laws  show  a  good  many  individual  traits  and  differ- 
ences, but  these  are  not  of  such  a  serious  character  as  to 
give  evidence  of  having  been  formulated  by  tribes  of  differ- 
ent origin.  A  remarkable  exception  is  formed  by  the  laws 
of  matrimony  and  inheritance  for  the  inhabitants  of  YsBrend 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  6? 

and  Bleking,  who,  it  will  be  remembered,  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Herulian  immigration  in  historic  times.  In  lieu 
of  a  missing  literature  of  sagas  and  poetry,  these  provincial 
laws  give  a  good  insight  into  the  character,  morals,  customs 
and  culture  of  the  heathen  and  early  Christian  times  of 
Sweden.  From  the  point  of  philology  they  are  also  of  great 
value,  besides  forming  the  solid  basis  of  later  Swedish  law. 
How  the  laws  could  pass  from  one  generation  to  another, 
without  any  codification,  depends  upon  the  facts  that  they 
were  recited  from  memory  by  the  justice  {lagman  or  do- 
mare)^  and  that  this  dignity  generally  was  inherited,  for 
centuries  being  carried  by  the  descendants  of  one  and  the 
same  family. 

Interesting  is  the  appendix  to  the  law  of  the  island  of 
Gothland,  the  Guta  Saga,  being  the  fragment  of  a  history 
of  the  island  and  its  first  contact  with  Christianity  through 
a  visit  by  St.  01  af  of  Norway.  The  style  is  the  same  simple 
and  serene  one  as  in  the  Icelandic  sagas ;  while  the  Gutnic 
dialect,  in  which  it  is  written,  more  closely  resembles  the 
Gothic  of  Bishop  Wulfila  in  vowel  sounds  than  the  language 
of  any  other  known  dialect.  Quite  an  important  appendix 
is  found  in  the  older  form  of  the  West  Gothic  law,  consist- 
ing of  lines  of  the  kings  of  Sweden,  with  short  but  highly 
valuable  accounts  of  their  reigns  and  characteristics. 

Stenkil  was  the  name  of  King  Emund's  successor.  He 
was  a  jarl  and  married  to  Emund's  sister.  The  statement 
that  he  was  born  in  West  Gothland  is  not  confirmed  by  the 
authorities.  His  father's  name  was  Ragnvald,  and  it  seems 
hkely  that  this  Ragnvald  was  identical  with  the  jarl  spoken 
of  above,  who  died  in  Russia.  Stenkil  had  close  relations 
with  Russia,  for  his  son  Inge  was  called  in  from  that  coun- 
try to  succeed  his  father.     If  Jarl  Ragnvald  was  StenkiPs 


68  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

father,  this  only  made  his  selection  as  king  more  plausible, 
being  then  the  half-brother  of  Isiaslaf  of  Russia  and  the 
brother-in-law  of  the  reigning  kings  of  Hungary,  France 
and  Norway.  King  Stenkil  was  a  devout  Christian,  but 
of  a  sagacious  disposition,  careful  not  to  offend  his  heathen 
subjects  by  any  Christian  propaganda.  He  was  a  giant  in 
fdze,  and  although  phlegmatic,  an  ardent  sportsman.  Adal- 
vard,  exiled  by  Emund,  returned  and  did  active  work  as 
bishop  of  Skara,  also  converting  the  population  of  Verm- 
land.  Even  among  the  heathen  of  Svealand,  Christianity 
got  a  foothold,  Adalvard  the  Younger  being  established  as 
bishop  in  Sigtuna,  close  by  the  pagan  centre  of  Upsala. 
But  when  he,  in  conjunction  with  Egino,  of  the  newly  erected 
bishop's  chair  of  Lund,  schemed  for  the  destruction  of  the 
heathen  temple  of  Upsala,  he  was  removed  by  the  command 
of  the  king,  who  found  that  such  a  plan,  if  carried  through, 
would  prove  disastrous  to  both  Church  and  throne. 

During  the  short  reign  of  Stenkil  there  was  a  conflict 
with  Norway,  an  exiled  Norwegian  jarl  having  been  granted 
possessions  in  Vermland.  King  Harald  Hardrade  invaded 
Gothaland,  punishing  this  insult  by  a  victory  over  the 
Swedes.  No  further  complications  ensued,  perhaps  on 
account  of  the  close  family  relations  of  the  two  rulers. 

Stenkil  died  in  1066,  leaving  two  sons,  Halsten  and 
Ingey  both  minors.  During  their  minority  two  men,  both 
named  Eric,  relatives  of  Stenkil  and  the  old  royal  line, 
fought  for  supremacy,  and  both  fell  in  the  contest  for  the 
crown.  Hakon  of  West  Gothland  took  hold  of  the  reins  of 
state  and  kept  them  for  thirteen  years,  until  King  Halsten 
became  of  age,  Hakon  himself  dying.  Halsten  was  a  de- 
vout Christian  like  his  father,  but  less  sagacious,  trying 
to  force  the  new  faith  u»on  the  heathen  of  Svealand.     Foi 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  69 

this  reason  he  was  dethroned,  and  his  brother  Inge  called 
in  from  Russia.  But  King  Inge  was  a  Christian  enthusiast 
like  his  brother,  and  was  subsequently  driven  away  by  the 
irate  inhabitants  of  Svealand,  who  now  called  to  the  throne 
his  brother-in-law  Sven,  surnamed  Blot-Sven  (Sven,  the 
8acriflcer)y  of  heathen  faith.  The  royal  brothers  dwelt 
undisturbed  among  the  Christians,  but  after  three  years 
King  Inge,  in  old  heathen  style,  surrounded  and  set  fire 
to  the  domicile  of  Blot-Sven,  who  with  all  his  household 
perished  within.  King  Inge  resumed  his  reign,  likely  very 
much  in  his  old  spirit,  for  two  other  pretenders,  although 
less  formidable,  appeared:  Olof  Nceskonung  (Nose-king) 
and  a  son  of  Sven,  called  Kol  or  Eric  Arscell.  Two  papal 
documents  are  preserved  from  Inge's  reign.  They  consist 
of  letters  from  Gregory  VII.,  making  appeals  for  closer 
relations  between  the  pope  and  the  Swedish  king. 

An  invasion  was  made  from  Norway,  whose  king,  Mag- 
nus Barfod,  subdued  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  of 
Dal.  King  Magnus  built  a  fortified  place  on  the  isl- 
and of  KoUandsce  in  Lake  Venar,  close  to  the  shore  of 
West  Gothland,  but  it  was  captured  by  King  Inge,  who 
set  its  occupants  free,  but  without  their  weapons.  Two  bat- 
tles were  fought  at  Fuxerna,  the  Norwegians  being  victors 
in  the  first,  the  Swedes  in  the  latter.  Peace  was  effected 
at  a  meeting  between  the  two  kings  at  Kunghsell  in  the 
summer  of  1101,  when  it  was  agreed  that  the  frontiers 
should  remain  as  they  were  before  the  war.  King  Eric 
Ejegod  was  also  present  at  the  meeting,  where  the  betrothal 
between  King  Magnus  and  King  Inge's  daughter  Margaret 
was  agreed  upon.  On  account  of  the  original  nature  of  the 
meeting  the  Swedish  princess  was  surnamed  FredkuUa 
(Peace-Maiden). 


70  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

In  1103  the  bishopric  of  Lund  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  an  archbishopric,  yet  not  becoming  perfectly  independent 
of  the  archbishopric  of  Hamburg-Bremen.  The  archbishop 
of  Lund  received  the  title  of  Primas  of  Sweden,  preserved 
long  after  Sweden  had  obtained  its  own  archbishop. 

King  Inge  died  in  1111,  receiving,  by  the  appendix  to 
the  West  Gothic  law,  credit  for  **  having  ruled  Sweden  with 
manliness,  without  breaking  the  law  which  governed  each 
province."  About  his  brother  Halsten,  who  died  before 
him,  the  same  source  says:  "He  was  sagacious  and  good- 
natured;  the  cases  brought  before  him  were  bettered,  and 
Sweden  became  worse  through  his  death."  At  the  time  of 
Inge's  death,  Jemtland  was  persuaded  to  pay  scat  to  the 
Norwegian  king,  but  it  remained  in  connection  with  the 
church  of  Sweden. 

Inge's  son  Ragnvald  died  before  him,  and  Halsten*8 
eons,  Philip  and  Inge  the  Younger^  ascended  the  throne. 
They  were  of  a  more  peaceful  disposition  toward  the  heathen 
than  their  predecessors,  Christianity  making  great  progress 
during  their  reigns.  Philip  died  in  1118,  Inge  following  him 
in  1126;  his  death  was  said  to  have  been  caused  by  poison. 
The  epitaph  over  the  two  runs  thus:  "Sweden  fared  well 
while  they  lived,"  in  the  terse  language  of  the  source  quoted 
above.  "With  them  the  race  of  Stenkil  became  extinct  in  the 
male  line. 

In  1123  thfe  Norwegian  king,  Sigurd  Jorsalafare,  under- 
took a  crusade  to  the  eastern  parts  of  Smaland,  which  were 
still  heathen.  **  Crusades"  of  this  kind  were  not  imcommon 
during  that  period,  and  were  hardly  anything  else  than 
Viking  expeditions  in  Christian  disguise. 

Great  confusion  ensued  through  the  extinction  of  Sten- 
kil's  line.    Eagnvald  Knaphoefde^  probably  the  son  of  Olof 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  Tl 

NsBskonung,  was  chosen  king,  but  lost  his  life  through  the 
contemptuous  neglect  of  an  ancient  custom.  The  newly 
elected  king  should  always  make  a  tour  of  the  realm,  re- 
ceiving homage  and  giving  assurance  of  his  good  faith  to 
the  population  of  the  various  provinces.  The  provincial 
laws  had  stipulations  as  to  the  nature  and  number  of  the 
gisslan  (hostages)  to  meet  and  escort  him  through  each 
province.  This  tour,  called  Eriksgata^  Ragnvald  under- 
took without  accepting  hostages  upon  entering  "West  Goth- 
land. He  was  killed  at  Karleby,  in  1130,  by  the  peasants, 
indignant  at  what  they  considered  an  insult  to  all  the  West 
Goths.  These  had,  moreover,  made  another  choice  in  Mag- 
nus Nilsson,  the  son  of  Margaret  Fredkulla  in  her  second 
marriage.  Magnus  never  made  claim  to  the  Swedish  throne, 
endeavoring  to  become  king  of  Denmark,  after  his  father, 
Nils  Svendsen,  but  losing  his  life  in  the  attempt. 

Sverker,  who  had  married  the  widow  of  the  younger 
Inge,  was  in  1133  chosen  king  by  the  East  Goths,  and  the 
Up-Swedes  (in  the  provinces  north  of  Lake  Mselar),  having 
no  special  choice  of  their  own,  also  agreed  on  him.  After 
the  death  of  Magnus  Nilsson,  the  West  Goths  joined  by 
formally  acknowledging  King  Sverker,  who,  born  in  East 
Gothland,  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Eric  Arssell, 
without  solid  reasons.  During  Sverker's  reign  ecclesiastical 
matters  developed.  The  old  bishoprics  of  Birka  and  Sigtuna 
were  changed  into  that  of  (Old)  Upsala,  where  the  pagan 
temple  seems  to  have  been  at  last  changed  into  a  church. 
New  bishoprics  were  created  in  Linkoeping,  Strengnses, 
Westeros  and  Vexio.  The  whole  of  Swedish  Finland 
formed  one  diocese.  The  famous  Bernard  of  Clairvaux 
was  asked  by  King  Sverker  and  his  queen  Ulf hild  to  send 
monks  of  his  order,  and  several  Cistercian  convents  were 


7t  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

founded.  The  quiet  and  scholarly  monks  from  France,  no 
doubt,  soon  began  to  exert  a  beneficial  influence  of  impor- 
tance, through  the  means  of  their  superior  culture.  A  papal 
legate,  Nicolausof  Alba  (later  Pope  Hadrian  IV.),  visited 
Sweden  in  1162,  meeting  all  the  dignitaries  of  Church  and 
State  for  a  conference  at  Linkoeping,  The  legate  was  will- 
ing to  give  to  Sweden  an  archbishop,  but  the  matter  was 
postponed,  since  no  agreement  could  be  reached  in  regard 
to  the  archbishopric's  seat.  Mefisures  for  the  establishment 
of  the  Church  on  a  firmer  basis  and  the  payment  of  Peter's 
pence  to  Rome  were  agreed  on. 

Sverker  was  a  good  and  peaceful  monarch,  but  seems 
with  old  age  to  have  lost  some  of  his  authority.  A  war 
with  Denmark  was  brought  on  through  an  escapade  of  his 
son  John,  who  had  carried  away  two  Danish  women  oC 
noble  birth.  He  returned  them,  and  was  himself  killed 
by  the  peasants  at  a  Thing.  Yet  the  Danish  king,  Svend 
Grade,  had  the  excuse  for  an  invasion  and  entered  Smaland 
with  an  army  in  the  winter  of  1163-54.  The  brave  inhabi- 
tants of  VsBrend  gave  him  a  hearty  welcome,  and  he  soon 
returned  to  Denmark.  It  is  an  old  tradition  that  a  woman 
by  the  name  of  Blenda  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  this 
result.  When  the  peasants  feared  to  attack  the  superior 
enemy,  she  had  a  splendid  meal  spread  for  the  foe.  After 
the  Danes  had  partaken  heavily  of  its  eatables  and  drink- 
ables, they  were  surprised  and  routed  by  their  hitherto 
invisible  hosts  and  hostesses. 

King  Sverker,  now  called  **the  Old,'*  was  murdered  by 
his  valet  while  starting  for  the  Christmas  matins  in  1165 
or  1156.  The  murder  was,  without  doubt,  committed  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Danish  prince  Magnus  Henricsson, 
who  on  his  mother's  side  was  a  great-grandson  of  Inge  the 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  73 

Elder,  and  who  in  this  manner  made  his  first  attempt  to 
reach  the  throne  of  Sweden. 

Already,  in  1150,  the  Up-Swedes  had  in  Eric,  the  son  of 
Jedvard,  found  a  man  in  their  opinion  better  suited  to  rule 
Sweden  than  Sverker  the  Old.  His  mother  is  said  to  have 
been  the  daughter  of  Blot-Sven  and  the  sister  of  Kol,  while 
his  father  was  "a  good  and  rich  yeoman."  Through  a  mis- 
take he  was  named  Eric  JX.,  but  is  more  commonly  known 
as  St.  Eric.  One  source  calls  him  **lawgiver,"  although 
nothing  is  definitely  known  of  his  activity  in  this  direction. 
At  the  death  of  Sverker,  his  son  Charles  was  certainly  of 
age,  but  the  growing  fame  of  King  Eric  made  it  useless  for 
him  to  force  his  right,  and  Eric  was  recognized  as  king 
of  the  whole  realm. 

King  Eric  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  Christian  propa- 
ganda in  his  own  country,  and  by  crusades  spread  the  faith 
outside  of  its  borders.  It  was  only  natural  that  Sweden 
should  turn  its  attention  to  Finland,  with  which  country  it 
had  stood  in  close  relations  since  the  remotest  period,  and 
where  Swedish  settlements  in  all  times  existed.  Accom- 
panied by  Bishop  Henric  of  Upsala,  King  Eric  sailed  with 
a  fleet  to  the  southwestern  part  of  Finland,  or  the  province 
now  called  Finland  Proper,  where  the  inhabitants  were 
forced  to  receive  baptism.  This  crusade  must  have  taken 
place  late  in  the  fifties  of  the  twelfth  century.  Eric  soon 
returned,  but  Bishop  Henric  remained  with  other  priests  to 
have  Christianity  firmly  estabHshed.  These  efforts  met 
with  considerable  difficulty,  and  Henric  was  murdered  by 
one  of  his  converts.  He  was  later  worshipped  as  the  patron 
saint  of  Finland. 

The  pious  King  Eric  was  attacked  by  the  perfidious 
prince  Magnus  Henricsson  at  East  Aros  (the  present  or 

XX  4 


74  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

New  Upsala),  in  1160.  It  is  said  that  Erie  was  attending 
mass  at  the  Trinity  Church,  when  he  was  told  of  the  ap- 
proach of  his  enemy.  He  remained  till  the  service  was  over, 
after  which  he  went  to  meet  his  fate.  He  was  overcome 
and  slain  by  the  superior  force.  His  pious  life  and  virtues 
and  the  miracles  which  were  said  to  have  been  worked  at 
his  grave  made  him  the  patron  saint  of  Sweden,  although 
never  canonized  by  the  Church  of  Rome.  His  bones  are 
preserved  in  a  shrine  of  gilt  silver  behind  the  high  altar  in 
the  cathedral  of  Upsala,  and  were  in  Catholic  days  objects 
of  worship.  Oaths  were  taken  "by  the  power  of  God  and 
Saint  Eric  the  King,"  his  banner  was  carried  in  war,  and 
the  city  of  Stockholm  still  has  his  image  on  its  shield. 

Charles  Sverkersson  (Charles  VII.)  now  made  valid 
his  claims,  the  whole  people  rising  to  support  him  against 
the  usurper  Magnus.  In  the  following  year  Magnus  was 
killed  by  the  indignant  people.  During  the  reign  of  Charles 
some  important  novelties  in  Church  and  State  were  intro- 
duced. Sweden  received,  in  1164,  her  first  archbishop  in 
Stefan,  a  monk  of  Alvastra.  The  archbishop's  seat  was 
first  Old  Upsala.  Instead  of  jarls  in  the  various  parts, 
there  is  from  this  time  on  a  jarl  for  the  whole  kingdom 
at  the  side  of  the  king,  whom  he  assists  in  the  government 
of  the  state,  sometimes  obtaining  a  power  rivalling  that  of 
his  master.  The  first  jarl  of  the  realm  was  Ulf,  the  second 
Gutorm.  The  rivalry  noticeable  between  the  different  prov- 
inces, which  all  thought  themselves  called  upon  to  select 
a  new  line  to  rule  after  Stenkil's,  ceased  at  the  death  of 
Saint  Eric.  What  follows  is  a  rivalry  of  interchanging 
dynasties.  Charles  Sverkersson  was,  in  April,  1167,  sur- 
prised by  a  pretender  to  the  throne,  Knut  Ericsson,  who 
deprived  him  of  crown  and  life,  while  his  little  son  Sverker 


HISTORY   OP   SWEDEN  75 

was  saved  and  carried  away  to  the  queen's  uncle,  Valdemar 
the  Great  of  Denmark. 

Knut  Ericsson  was  the  son  of  Saint  Eric,  and  ruled 
Sweden  for  twenty-five  years  in  peace.  In  his  youth  he 
had  made  one  unsuccessful  attempt  to  reach  the  throne, 
after  which  he  fled  to  ITorway.  After  the  death  of  King 
Charles  he  had  to  fight  two  pretenders,  Kol  and  Burislev, 
the  latter  said  to  have  heen  a  son  of  King  Sverker. 

During  this  period  the  Baltic  and  its  coasts  were  con- 
tinually disturbed  by  heathen  sea-rovers  from  the  southern 
shores.  A  fleet  of  this  kind  entered  Lake  Mselar  in  1187 
and  destroyed  by  fire  the  town  of  Sigtuna,  which,  as  a 
mercantile  centre,  had  succeeded  the  earlier  destroyed 
Birka.  The  second  archbishop  of  Sweden,  John,  was 
killed  by  the  invaders.  The  first  preliminary  plan  for  the 
fortification  of  the  present  site  of  Stockholm  was  probably 
then  laid,  in  order  to  prevent  further  invasions,  and  a  little 
town  commenced  to  grow  up. 

Conditions  in  Finland  were  not  satisfactory.  Invasions 
by  Esthonians  and  Vends  were  frequent,  while  the  Finns 
themselves  were  troublesome  and  little  devoted  to  the  new 
faith.  Bishop  Henric's  successor  was  killed,  but  Sweden 
continued  to  send  bishops  during  the  next  hundred  years. 

The  relations  with  foreign  powers  were  peaceable,  the 
first  known  treaty  between  Sweden  and  a  Grerman  prince 
being  entered  into  by  King  Knut  and  Duke  Heinrich  of  Sax- 
<)ny  and  Bavaria,  in  regard  to  trade  relations  with  Lubeck. 
King  Knut  died  in  the  winter  of  1195.  He  had  four  sons, 
but  although  he  had  selected  one  of  them  for  his  successor, 
•*with  general  consent  and  through  election  by  the  foremost 
men  in  Sweden,"  Sverker  the  Younger ,  the  son  of  King 
Charles,  succeeded  him.     That  this  could  take  place  with* 


ni  HISTORY   OF   SWEDElf 

out  serious  objection  of  Knut's  sons  can  only  be  explained 
by  the  influence  wielded  by  the  Church  and  the  nobles. 
The  latter  had  already  grown  up  to  strength  and  impor- 
tance. Their  leader  was  the  mighty  jarl,  Birger  Brosa,  who 
had  succeeded  Gutorm.  He  was  of  the  influential  family 
of  Folkungs,  which,  one  of  the  first  in  the  land,  soon  as- 
pired to  the  throne.  Birger,  himself  married  to  a  Norwe- 
gian princess,  gave  his  own  daughter  Ingegerd  in  marriage 
to  the  new  king,  and  remained  in  power. 

King  Sverker  sought  the  favor  of  the  Church  by  sup- 
porting its  claims.  In  a  document  of  the  year  1200,  by 
which  he  donates  some  property  to  the  church  of  Upsala, 
historians  have  seen  the  privileges  extended  to  the  Church 
as  an  independent  power  of  state,  whose  members  could 
be  arraigned  before  an  ecclesiastic  forum  only,  and  whose 
property  was  to  be  exempt  from  taxation.  This  is  the 
spirit  of  the  document;  but  the  king  had  not,  at  that  pe- 
riod, the  right  to  grant  such  extensive  privileges.  King 
Sverker,  and  probably  each  of  his  successors,  in  turn,  gave 
only  an  assurance  of  their  sympathy  with  the  Church  policy, 
which  was  to  its  full  extent  an  assured  victory  only  toward 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

In  1202,  Birger  Brosa  died,  and  with  him  the  firm  sup- 
port against  the  pretenders  had  fallen.  The  sons  of  Knut 
now  made  open  revolt,  leaving  their  places  at  Sverker's 
court.  In  1205,  Sverker  gave  battle  to  them  at  Elgaros, 
three  of  the  brothers  being  killed  and  the  fourth,  Eric, 
fleeing  to  Norway.  But  a  few  years  later  he  returned 
with  an  army,  and  Sverker  found  it  safest  to  retire  to 
Denmark,  whence  he  returned  with  a  splendid  army,  which 
King  Valdemar  II.  Seier,  had  placed  at  his  disposal.  But 
this  army  was  defeated  at  Lena,  in  West  Gothland,  in  1208, 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  77 

and  Sverker  returned  to  Denmark,  now  turning  to  the  pope, 
Innocent  III.,  who  in  vain  threatened  the  pretender  with 
his  ban.  Sverker  entered  Sweden  with  a  new  Danish  army, 
but  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Gestilren,  in  West  Gothland, 
in  1210. 

Eric  Knutsson  now  came  to  undisturbed  possession  of 
the  throne  and  thus  remained  until  his  death  in  April,  1216, 
his  reign  being  short  and  uneventful.  He  was  the  first 
king  of  Sweden  of  whom  it  is  known  with  certainty  that 
he  was  anointed  and  crowned,  thus  placing  himself  under 
the  protection  of  the  Church.  His  queen,  Rikissa,  a  sister 
of  Yaldemar  II.,  returned  to  Denmark  after  his  death, 
lihere  giving  life  to  a  son,  who  was  named  Eric,  after  his 
father.  King  Valdemar  tried  in  vain  to  have  this  royal 
babe  placed  on  the  Swedish  throne. 

John  Sverkersson  succeeded  King  Eric,  being,  on  ac- 
count of  his  fifteen  years  of  age,  first  surnamed  the  Young, 
later  the  Pious.  By  confirming  and  extending  the  rights 
of  the  Church  which  his  father  granted  he  won  the  favor 
of  the  ecclesiastics,  and  the  attempts  made  by  Valdemar  to 
have  his  consecration  prohibited  proved  futile.  Toward 
the  end  of  his  short  reign  (in  1220)  King  John  undertook 
a  crusade  to  Esthonia,  where  he  left  behind  him  his  jarl, 
Charles,  a  brother  of  Birger  Brosa,  and  Bishop  Charles  of 
Linkceping,  with  a  part  of  the  army.  These  all  perished 
in  an  onslaught  made  on  them  by  the  heathen  in  August 
of  the  same  year,  and  the  ravages  by  Esthonians  continued 
as  before.  King  John  died  in  the  island  of  Visingsce,  in 
Lake  Vetter,  in  1222,  like  several  of  his  predecessors,  and 
was,  like  them,  buried  in  the  monastery  of  Alvastra. 

Eric  Ericsson  now  became  king  of  Sweden.  The  royal 
babe  was  then  six  years  of  age,  a  halting  and  lisping  little 


78  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

creature.  The  Church  took  him  under  its  protection,  but 
there  was  no  powerful  man  to  take  hold  of  the  government 
during  his  minority.  A  pretender  rose  in  the  person  of 
Knut  the  Tall,  a  great  grandson  of  St.  Eric,  like  the  king 
himself.  He  defeated  Eric's  troops  at  Olustra,  in  1229. 
Eric  fled  to  Denmark,  where  he  remained  until  the  short 
and  restless  reign  of  Knut  came  to  an  end  through  his 
death,  in  1232.  Eric  resumed  the  reins  of  government, 
with  the  Folkung,  Jarl  Ulf,  at  the  helm. 

Pope  Gregory  IX.,  in  1230,  gave  commandment  to  the 
Swedish  bishops  to  rouse  the  people  to  opposition  against  the 
ravages  of  the  heathen  in  the  Baltic  provinces  in  the  further 
parts  of  Finland.  In  1237  he  commands  the  Swedish  bish- 
ops to  have  a  crusade  started  against  the  heathen  Tavasti 
in  the  interior  of  Finland.  This  crusade  took  place  under 
the  leadership  of  Birger  Magnusson,  who  converted  the 
barbarous  Finns  by  the  sword  and  erected  a  fort  on  the 
site  of  the  later  Tavastehus.  Birger,  according  to  Rus- 
sian testimony,  tried  to  extend  the  dominion  of  Swedish 
supremacy  as  far  as  to  the  river  Neva,  but  was  repulsed 
by  the  Russians. 

Peace  had  reigned  in  Sweden  for  some  time  when  new 
conflicts  ensued.  The  peasants  of  Upland  made  an  uprising 
in  1247,  but  were  conquered  at  Sparrsaetra  and  punished  by 
heavier  taxes.  A  pretender  rose  in  the  person  of  Holmger, 
the  son  of  Knut  the  Tall.  He  was  captured  and  beheaded 
in  1248. 

A  papal  legate,  Bishop  William  of  Sabina,  visited  Sweden 
and  arranged,  in  1248,  an  ecclesiastical  meeting  at  Sken- 
ninge,  effecting  the  final  separation  of  Church  and  State, 
and  establishing  the  former  as  an  independent  power  at  the 
side  of  the  latter.     Archbishops  and  bishops  were  now  to  be 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  79 

elected  by  the  ecclesiastics  and  not  by  the  king.  Celibacy, 
previously  not  enforced  in  the  Swedish  church,  was  then 
introduced,  meeting  with  a  good  deal  of  opposition ;  for  the 
ecclesiastical  offices  had  already  commenced  getting  heredi- 
tary, as  had  in  earlier  times  the  combined  dignities  of  Asa 
priest  and  chieftain.  Birger  Magnusson  had,  shortly  before 
the  meeting  of  Skenninge,  succeeded  Ulf  as  jarl  of  the 
realm.  This  converter  of  the  Tavasti  was  destined  to  play 
a  most  important  part  in  Swedish  history,  shaping  its  des- 
tiny through  the  power  of  his  iron  will.  He  was  the  leader 
of  the  Folkung  family  and  party,  a  nephew  of  Birger 
Brosa,  and  married  to  princess  Ingeborg,  a  sister  of  the 
reigning  king.  Birger  Jarl,  as  he  is  generally  called, 
effected  a  satisfactory  agreement  with  Norway  at  a  meet- 
ing with  Hakon  in  the  summer  of  1249,  according  to  which 
the  enemies  of  one  realm  should  have  no  refuge,  or  support, 
in  the  other.  Besides,  it  was  agreed  that  the  son  of  the 
Norwegian  king  should  marry  Rikissa,  the  daughter  of 
Birger  Jarl. 

King  Eric  died  in  1250,  at  the  age  of  thirty-four.  He 
called  himself  Eric  III. ,  while  in  later  times,  when  St.  Eric 
was  supposed  to  have  been  the  ninth  king  of  that  name, 
he  has  been  called  Eric  XI.  He  was  said  to  have  been 
peaceful,  just  and  kind. 


CHAPTER  V 
The  Mediceval  State — The  Folkung  Dynasty 

WITH  Eric  Ericsson  the  royal  line  of  Saint  Eric 
became  extinct.  The  crown  was,  on  account 
of  his  birthright,  offered  to  Valdemar,  the  old- 
est son  of  Birger  Jarl.  He  was  crowned  in  Linkoeping 
in  1251.  From  this  period  on,  a  new  historic  somrce  is 
foimd  in  the  rhymed  chronicles,  of  which  Swedish  litera- 
ture possesses  several  elaborate  ones  of  more  than  22,000 
verses  in  all.  Of  these  the  Old,  or  Eric's,  Chronicle,  was 
written  about  1320,  and,  Uke  all  the  rest,  anonymously. 
The  verses  are  fine,  the  language  pure  and  powerful;  the 
portraits  of  historical  personages  are  roughly  drawn  but 
interesting.  Unfortunately  these  rhymed  chronicles  in 
general,  and  the  Eric's  Chronicle  in  particular,  dwell  rather 
on  the  description  of  impressive  events  of  pomp  and  splen- 
dor than  on  historical  facts;  and  the  facts  given  are  not 
always  reUable.  The  Eric's  Chronicle  gives  a  brief  review 
of  events  during  the  reigns  of  Eric  and  Valdemar;  then  for 
the  events  up  to  1319  more  fully. 

According  to  the  Eric's  Chronicle,  Birger  Jarl  wished 
to  succeed  Eric,  but  had  to  step  aside  for  his  son,  who  was 
of  royal  descent  through  his  mother,  King   Eric's  sister. 
(80) 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  81 

But  Birger  Jarl  remained  the  all-powerful,  although  un- 
crowned, ruler  till  his  death. 

Many  of  the  nobles  were  not  satisfied  with  the  election 
of  Valdemar.  They  joined  forces,  gathering  hired  troops 
from  Denmark  and  Germany.  Birger  met  them  at  Her- 
vadsbro  and  defeated  them,  capturing  the  leaders,  who  were 
beheaded.  Among  these  were  Philip,  a  son  of  Knut  the 
Tall,  and  Knut  Magnusson,  with  others  of  the  Folkung 
family,  which  often  was  at  war  between  themselves  when 
great  interests  were  at  stake. 

After  this  battle  peace  reigned  under  the  powerful  and 
sagacious  rule  of  Birger.  An  assault  upon  Denmark  by 
King  Hakon  of  Norway  and  Birger  jointly  was  planned,  but 
a  peace  agreement  took  its  place,  in  1253.  In  the  further 
complications  between  Norway  and  Denmark,  Birger  took 
no  part.  When  later  King  Christopher  of  Denmark  called 
upon  his  northern  neighbors  for  help  against  revolts  in  his 
own  coxmtry,  these  were  ready  to  respond;  but  at  the  sud- 
den death  of  King  Christopher  these  plans  were  frustrated. 
In  1260  Birger  bettered  the  already  friendly  relations  with 
Denmark,  by  arranging  the  marriage  between  King  Valde- 
mar and  the  Danish  princess,  Sophia,  whereupon  he,  himself 
a  widower,  married  Mechtild,  a  queen-dowager  of  Den- 
mark. In  Finland,  conditions  were  the  same  as  of  yore, 
pagan  tribes  and  Russian  invasions  rendering  everything 
unsafe  and  perilous.  Birger  renewed  the  trade  agreement 
with  Lubeck,  in  1251,  with  added  privileges  to  Lubeck,  but 
with  the  stipulation  that  those  of  its  citizens  who  settled 
m  Sweden  must  become  Swedish  subjects.  In  1261  the 
same  privileges  were  extended  to  Hamburg.  It  was  at  this 
period  that  the  Hanseatic  League  was  formed  between  the 
commercial  centres  of  North  Germany.     The  relations  be- 


82  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

tween  the  league  and  the  Scandinavian  countries  waxed 
quite  intimate  and,  at  times,  menacing  to  the  political 
independence  of  the  latter.  But  Sweden  derived  many 
benefits  through  the  contact  with  the  reviving  culture  of 
Southern  Europe,  which  was  brought  about  through  the 
Hanseatic  League;  the  newly  opened  mining  industry  and 
the  prosperity  of  Swedish  commercial  centres  particulariy 
owing  much  to  this  influence.  Stockholm  became  the  larg- 
est and  most  impori:ant  of  Swedish  towns  during  the  days 
of  Birger,  although  he  was  not  its  founder.  Also  with 
England,  Birger  was  carrying  on  peaceful  proceedings;  yet 
their  purpose  is  not  known.  In  1237,  the  king  of  England 
had  granted  the  merchants  of  the  island  of  Gothland  free 
trade  privileges.  Birger  was  a  great  and  sound  legislator, 
although  it  is  not  known  with  certainty  how  many  of  the 
judicial  reforms  accredited  to  him  originated  in  these  days. 
He  made  the  law  that  sister  should  have  equal  share 
of  inheritance  with  brother,  and  the  laws  of  sanctity  of 
home,  Church,  Thing  and  woman,  which  formed  the  kernel 
of  a  set  of  laws,  later  called  Edscere  (Pledged  oath),  which 
every  crowned  king  and  his  foremost  men  must  pledge 
themselves  to  uphold.  He  tried  to  make  away  with  the 
ordeal  of  walking  on,  or  the  handUng  of,  iron  as  a  legal 
testimony  of  guiltlessness.  Further,  he  prohibited  the  cus- 
tom of  self-imposed  thraldom. 

The  only  act  of  Birger's  which  has  been  condemned  was 
his  attempt  to  introduce  feudaUsm.  His  second  son,  Mag- 
nus, was  created  a  duke,  and  received,  at  Birger's  death, 
Soedermanland,  with  the  castle  of  Nykceping  as  a  duchy. 
This  gave  rise  to  much  strife  and  many  conflicts  within 
the  new  royal  branch  of  the  Folkungs,  and  endangered  the 
unity  of  the  kingdom.     Birger,  the  last  jarl  of  the  realm. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  83 

was  the  first  real  statesman  of  Sweden,  whose  stem  intellect 
and  integrity  of  character  won  for  his  country  an  honored 
position  among  its  neighbors,  and  for  himself  the  admiration 
of  many  generations  to  come.     He  died  in  1266. 

The  first  few  years  after  Birger's  death  were  peaceful. 
The  archbishop's  seat  was  removed  to  the  present  Upsala, 
where  work  was  commenced  on  the  magnificent  cathedral. 
In  1271  the  commercial  privileges  held  by  Lubeck  and 
Hamburg  were  also  granted  to  Riga. 

Valdemar  was  a  weak  and  frivolous  man,  and  his  licen- 
tiousness gave  his  brother  Magnus  the  idea  of  pushing  him 
aside,  and  later  deprived  him  of  the  loyalty  and  respect  of 
his  people.  The  difficulties  with  his  brothers  ended  in  open 
conflict;  Magnus  and  his  yoimger  brother  Eric  turned  to 
Denmark  and  Germany,  where  they  hired  an  army.  King 
Eric  Glipping  of  Denmark  helping  them  with  troops  on 
promise  of  good  securities.  The  brothers  invaded  West 
Gothland  and  defeated  a  Swedish  army  at  Hofva,  in  1275, 
while  the  king  with  his  best  troops  remained  inactive  at 
Tiveden.  Valdemar  fled  to  Norway,  bringing  his  son  Eric 
with  him.  Venturing  back  into  Vermland,  he  was  captured 
and  brought  before  Duke  Magnus.  Valdemar  went  so  far 
as  to  abdicate  his  throne,  but  the  meeting  ended  in  an 
agreement  according  to  which  Magnus  was  to  become 
king  of  Svealand  and  Valdemar  to  keep  Gothaland.  Eric 
was  made  a  duke,  but  died  in  the  same  year.  Magnus 
was  crowned  at  Upsala  in  1276. 

King  Valdemar  did  not  long  remain  content  with  the 
new  state  of  things.  One  month  after  Magnus's  coronation 
he  arranged  a  meeting  with  him  at  Loedoese,  over  which 
King  Magnus  Lagabcete  of  Norway  presided,  but  without 
being  able  to  effect  an  agreement  between  the  brothers. 


84  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

Valdemar  now  turned  to  King  Eric  of  Denmark,  and  won 
an  ally  in  him  because  Magnus  had  neglected  to  fulfil  his 
promises.  Magnus  gained  a  supporter  in  Duke  Gerhard  I. 
of  Holstein,  whose  daughter  Hel\ag  he  married  in  Novem- 
ber, 1276. 

With  the  year  1277  war  commences  between  Sweden 
and  Denmark.  Magnus  invades  Halland  and  Scania,  while 
Valdemar,  with  a  Danish  army,  enters  Smaland,  burning 
the  town  of  Vexio.  With  King  Eric,  Valdemar  enters 
West  Gothland,  capturing  Skara.  At  last  the  Danes  are 
defeated  at  Ettak.  Early  in  1278  peace  is  made  at  Laholm, 
Magnus  promising  to  pay  his  debt  to  Eric,  leaving  the  castle 
of  Loedoese  as  security.  Each  promises  not  to  shelter  the 
rebels  against  the  other.  Valdemar  lost  his  cause  and  had 
to  give  up  Gothaland  and  his  royal  title,  keeping  only  his 
inherited  estates.  On  account  of  his  scandalous  living,  the 
nobles  insisted  upon  his  imprisonment,  and  ten  years  after 
his  abdication  he  was  placed  in  custody  at  the  castle  of 
Nykceping.  He  survived  all  his  brothers,  dying  in  1302. 
His  son  EIric  was  imprisoned  at  the  castle  of  Stockholm, 
receiving  good  treatment  like  his  father.  When  his  cousin 
Birger  was  crowned,  in  1302,  he  was  set  free,  spending  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  Sweden  as  a  private  citizen.  During 
Magnus  Ericsson's  minority  he  was  a  member  of  the  king's 
coimcil.  When  Magnus  was  sole  occupant  of  the  throne 
bp  took  the  title  of  "King  of  the  Swedes  and  Goths," 
which,  occasionally  used  before,  henceforward  became  the 
customary  one. 

A  revolt  against  King  Magnus  took  place  shortly  after 
the  meeting  at  Laholm.  Some  of  the  nobles  were  dissatis- 
fied with  the  favoritism  shown  foreigners,  a  complaint  which 
was  only  too  often  justifiable,  and  forever  repeated,  in  the 


HISTORY    OI    SWEDEN  85 

course  of  centuries,  against  the  Swedish  monarchs.  Count 
Gerhard  of  Holstein  was  imprisoned,  and  the  Danish 
knight,  Ingemar,  killed.  The  king  invited  the  rebels  to 
him  at  GsBllqvist,  where  he  in  an  unexpected  way  made 
them  prisoners,  and  had  them  beheaded,  in  August,  1280, 
confiscating  their  property.  This  incident  is  characteristio 
of  the  time,  but  there  is  no  other  authority  for  it  than  the 
Chronicle.  The  reign  of  Magnus  was  comparatively  short, 
but  a  happy  and  glorious  one.  The  relations  with  the  island 
of  Gothland  were  made  closer  and  more  intimate,  although 
the  proud  independence  of  its  inhabitants  remained  largely 
intact.  They  were  to  pay  increased  scat,  but  continued 
their  government  without  royal  officials.  The  Guts  were 
of  Swedish  origin,  and  their  island  formed  since  the  ninth 
century  a  part  of  Sweden,  but  their  isolated  position  and 
great  commercial  activity  made  them  almost  independent. 
About  the  year  1000  they  seek  for  themselves  protection 
from  the  Swedish  king,  and  after  their  baptism  they  turn 
to  the  bishop  of  Linkoeping  for  spiritual  guidance.  Thanks 
to  its  position,  halfway  between  Germany,  Russia  and  Swe- 
den, Gothland  gives  rise  to  the  most  important  commercial 
centre  of  Northern  Europe  after  Lubeck.  The  inhabitants 
of  Visby  were  Germans,  to  a  great  extent,  and  their  con- 
flicts with  the  rural  population  were  frequent.  King  Mag- 
nus appears  as  an  arbitrator  in  such  cases  with  an  authority 
great  enough  to  impose  his  conditions.  In  spite  of  the 
inimical  relations  between  Denmark  and  Norway,  Magnus 
held  peace  with  both. 

As  a  legislator  Magnus  was  even  more  important  than 
his  father,  shaping  and  reshaping  laws  which  furthered  the 
development  of  the  country  and  wielding  an  influence  upon 
its  jurisdiction  reaching  down  to  the  present  day.    At  a 


86  HISTOaY    OF    SWEDEN 

meeting  of  nobles  at  Alnsnoe,  in  1280,  King  Magnus  gave 
solemn  pledge  to  the  so-called  Edsoere-laws  of  his  father, 
and  made  the  nobility  into  a  privileged  class.  All  the  men 
surrounding  him  and  his  brother  Bengt  (made  duke  of 
Finland),  and  on  their  estates,  together  with  the  trusted 
men  in  the  service  of  a  bishop,  were  freed  from  paying  taxes 
to  the  king.  The  same  privilege  was  extended  **to  all  men 
who  served  with  a  horse,  whosoever  they  serve."  The  ex* 
emption  from  taxes  did  not  include  those  due  the  church 
or  community,  but  only  those  due  the  king.  The  horse  ser- 
vice (ros5=later  rusttjenst)  meant  to  provide  for  a  cavalry 
force  of  iron-clad  men  for  military  service,  according  to  the 
demands  of  the  time.  The  nobles  saw  to  it  that  this  privi- 
lege was  made  permanent  even  after  they  had  discontinued 
the  horse  service,  and  that  others  were  added  to  it.  A  law 
prohibiting  voldgcestning^  the  custom  of  travellers  of  taking 
by  violence,  or  without  compensation,  food  and  comfort  from 
the  rural  population,  was  also  made  at  Alnsnoe,  and  won  for 
King  Magnus  the  rustic  but  beautiful  surname  of  Ladulas 
(Barn-lock).  "For  he  wished  to  place  such  locks  on  the 
peasant's  bam,  that  no  one  should  dare  enter  but  at  the 
will  of  the  owner,"  wrote  Olaus  Petri,  the  historian  and 
reformer.  An  official  was  placed  in  every  country  town  to 
see  to  the  traveller's  comfort,  and  to  his  payment  for  it.  At 
a  meeting  in  Skenninge,  in  1285,  a  law  about  konungafrid 
(royal  sanctity)  was  made  in  order  to  prevent  strife  among 
the  nobles  and  to  make  away  with  the  ancient  evil  of  re- 
venge for  bloodshed.  This  period  of  royal  sanctity,  when 
between  men  of  the  most  strained  relations  peace  should 
reign,  commenced  a  fortnight  after  the  king's  arrival  had 
been  announced  at  the  Thing  and  lasted  until  he  had  by 
letter  informed  it  of  his  departure  out  of  the  province.    The 


HISTORY   OF    SWEDEN  8T~ 

one  who  abused  this  sanctity,  or  only  carried  weapons,  was 
exiled  and  his  property  confiscated.  Secret  societies  among 
the  nobles  were  prohibited. 

Magnus  was  not  only  a  great  legislator,  but  saw  to  it 
that  his  laws  were  not  broken.  Personally  he  loved  splen* 
dor  and  dignity,  another  trait  through  which  he  won  the 
favor  of  the  Swedes,  who  in  all  times  have  been  fond  of 
seeing  their  highest  representatives  surround  themselves 
with  impressive  luxury  and  wealth.  Magnus  was  in  this 
respect  the  first  mediseval  monarch  of  Sweden,  who  kept 
a  brilliant  court,  but  at  the  same  time  was  the  pious  and 
obedient  son  of  the  Church.  He  augmented  the  ecclesias- 
tical privileges  and  founded  several  convents.  In  one  of 
these,  St.  Clara  of  Stockholm,  he  installed  his  daughter 
Rikissa.  Upon  his  death,  which  deplorable  event  took  place 
In  the  island  of  Visingsoe,  December  18,  1290,  he  was  buried 
fai  the  Franciscan  convent  church  (the  Riddarholm*s)  ia 
Stockholm,  according  to  his  own  wish.  He  was  the  first 
monarch  to  be  entombed  in  this  the  present  Pantheoa 
of  Sweden.  Three  sons  survived  him,  Birger,  Eric  and 
Valdemar. 

During  the  reign  of  Magnus,  the  development  of  med- 
iaeval institutions  took  rapid  strides.  This  is  noticeable 
also  in  the  offices  of  those  who  surround  the  king.  In 
the  place  of  the  jarl  have  been  set  two  new  dignitaries  the 
drotsete  and  marsk,  of  the  king,  ''the  seater  of  the  retinue'* 
and  "marechal"  or  "servant  of  the  horse,"  respectively. 
Circumstances  heightened  the  importance  of  these  offices 
and  changed  them  from  court  into  state  positions,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  state  council  and  the  commander  of  the  army. 
The  kansler  (chancellor),  often  a  bishop,  is  another  impor- 
tant royal  office.     The  king's  comicil,  consisting  of  bishops, 


08  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

knights  and  men  of  social  standing,  surrounds  the  monarch 
at  his  command  and  according  to  his  selection,  the  arch- 
bishop being  the  only  ex-officio  member.  Important  affairs 
of  State  and  Church  are  decided  on  at  the  meetings  of  nobles, 
herreddgar,  no  one  taking  part  who  is  not  asked,  or  not 
agreeable  to  the  king.  These  meetings  later  developed  into 
riksdagar^  at  which  all  classes  of  the  people  were  repre- 
sented. Taxes  were  collected  for  the  king  by  bailiffs,  who 
in  compensation  received  fiefs,  sometimes  consisting  only  of 
certain  estates,  in  other  instances  as  much  as  a  whole  prov- 
ince or  district.  The  right  of  taxation  belonged  to  the  peo- 
ple. Only  in  extraordinary  cases  the  king  was  allowed  to 
impose  additional  taxes,  although  such  were  sometimes  im- 
posed wrongfully,  in  spite  of  a  law  stipulated  by  King 
Magnus  Barn-Lock. 

Birger  succeeded  his  father  Magnus.  He  was  only  ten 
years  of  age,  but  his  father  had  placed  by  his  side  a  man 
who  was  to  reign  during  his  minority.  Marsk  Tyrgila 
Knutsson  was  the  second  of  the  great  uncrowned  rulers 
of  whom  Sweden  was  destined  to  receive  a  number  almost 
as  large  as  that  of  illustrious  monarchs.  Tyrgils  Knutsson 
followed  out  the  policy  of  peace  and  progress  which  Birger 
</arl  had  commenced  and  King  Magnus  continued,  making 
in  all  the  happiest  era  of  the  Middle  Ages.  To  Birger  JarPs 
conquest  of  Tavastland  in  Finland,  Tyrgils  added  that  of 
Carelia.  Two  expeditions  were  sent  to  Carelia,  in  1293  and 
1299,  whose  savage  inhabitants  were  converted  and  made 
Swedish  subjects.  Viborg  was  built  and  formed  a  strong- 
kold  for  further  operations,  while  Landskrona,  another  for- 
tified p)sce,  erected  by  Tyrgils,  not  far  from  the  site  of 
the  present  St.  Petersburg,  was  soon  lost  to  the  Russians. 
Through  the  conquest  of  Carelia,  better  times  commenced 


HISTORY    OP    SWEDEN  89 

for  the  Church  of  Finland,  whose  bishopric^  in  1300,  waa 
moved  to  Abo. 

The  legislative  work  of  his  great  predecessors  was  con- 
tinned  by  Tyrgils,  who  made  possible  the  union  of  the  vari- 
ous * 'lands"  of  Upland  into  one  judicial  district.  The  first 
justice  was  Birger  Persson,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the 
work  of  preparing  a  common  law  for  the  whole  province 
(in  1296).  Neutrality  was  preserved  during  the  conflicts 
between  Norway  and  Denmark.  King  Eric  Menved  of 
Denmark  was,  in  1296,  married  to  King  Birger 's  sister, 
the  pious  Princess  Ingeborg.  In  1298  Birger  was  married 
to  Eric's  sister  Margaret  in  Stockholm,  over  the  lavish 
(^lender  of  which  event  the  poet  of  the  Chronicle  goes 
into  ecstasies  of  delight  and  felicitous  description.  Both 
these  unions  were  prearranged  by  King  Magnus,  and  the 
princess  Margaret  had  been  educated  in  Sweden  for  the 
purpose  of  becoming  its  queen. 

The  king  was  now  of  age,  but  Marsk  Tyrgils  continued 
for  several  years  at  the  helm.  His  relations  to  the  Church 
show  what  a  wise  and  vigorous  statesman  he  was.  When 
in  the  name  of  the  king  the  privileges  to  the  Church  were 
once  more  granted,  as  by  his  predecessor,  Tyrgils  made  the 
important  exceptions  that  the  Church  should  fulfil  for  its 
possessions  the  same  military  duty  as  all  others  in  the  coun- 
try, and  that  certain  large  fines  should  be  reserved  for  the 
king.  The  ecclesiastics  took  quietly  to  these  restrictions  at 
first,  but  soon  an  open  conflict  ensued.  Another  and  greater 
one  arose  between  the  king  and  his  brothers,  Eric,  duke 
of  Sweden,  and  Valdemar,  duke  of  Finland.  It  resembles 
very  much  the  conflict  between  their  uncle  Valdemar  and 
his  brothers.  In  both  cases  there  was  a  weak  and  deceitful 
king  who  was  inferior,  if  not  in  wretchedness,  at  least  in 


fO  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

courage,  to  one  of  the  brothers.  After  the  first  conflict  was 
ended,  the  dukes  selected  Marsk  Tyrgils  for  their  prey.  In 
March,  1305,  Tyrgils  saw  the  king  grant  to  the  Church  the 
important  privileges  held  back  until  then.  In  December  of 
the  same  year  the  king  and  his  brothers  came  upon  Tyrgils 
imprepared.  He  was  imprisoned,  and  in  a  shameful  man- 
ner dragged  to  Stockholm,  travelling  night  and  day  through 
the  cold  of  winter,  probably  by  some  fraudulent  legal  pro- 
cess found  guilty  of  treason,  and  beheaded,  February  10, 
1236.  As  a  climax  to  this  foul  political  murder,  Tyrgils 
Knutsson  was  buried  on  the  place  of  execution.  Later,  his 
body  was  removed  to  the  church  of  Riddarholm  and  placed 
at  the  side  of  King  Magnus,  whose  son  he  had  served  so 
faithfully. 

The  conflict  between  the  royal  brothers  burst  into  flame 
again,  revealing  some  of  the  darkest  and  most  shocking 
scenes  of  deceit,  treachery  and  villany  found  in  Swedish 
history.  The  strife  commenced  in  April,  1304,  for  the  first 
time,  and  continued,  with  few  and  short  intermissions, 
mitil  the  autumn  of  1318,  with  broken  oaths  and  pledges, 
which  were  renewed  and  broken  again,  alliances  and  royal 
betrothals  formed,  ended  and  renewed,  kingdoms  and 
duchies  divided  and  redivided,  endless  intrigues,  rebellion 
and  mutual  invasions.  The  kings  of  Norway  and  Den- 
mark, with  their  armies,  and  several  German  princes  and 
hired  troops,  became  actors  in  this  bloody  tragedy,  which 
ended  in  the  annihilation  of  the  principals.  The  most 
dramatic  incidents  are  known  as  *Hhe  Play  at  Hotuna'* 
and  "the  Feast  of  Nykoeping,'*  both  taking  place  during 
the  short  intervals  of  peace.  The  former  was  enacted 
September  29,  1306,  when  the  king  invited  his  brothers 
to  him  at  Hotuna  in  Upland.     They  accepted  the  in  vita- 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  91 

tion,  only  to  carry  the  king  and  queen  away  as  captives, 
forcing  the  former  to  give  over  to  them  his  kingdom  and 
his  power,  only  leaving  him  the  royal  title.  "The  Feast 
at  Ny keeping"  was  held  the  night  between  December  10 
and  11,  1317.  The  king  and  queen  invited  the  dukes  to 
the  castle,  seized  them  in  the  night  and  threw  them  into 
a  dimgeon,  where  they  both  perished  after  six  months  of 
hunger  and  neglect.  Birger  did  not  derive  any  benefit  from 
his  fearful  crime.  T.'  le  whole  country  rose  against  him  and 
he  died,  after  several  years  of  exile,  in  1321.  Birger  has 
generally  been  held  forth  as  the  responsible  party  in  the 
crimes  and  evils  of  the  conflict,  but  his  brothers  seem  to 
have  been  guilty  in  about  the  same  degree.  Duke  Eric 
was  one  of  the  most  brilliantly  gifted  princes  of  his  age, 
and  jealousy  on  the  part  of  the  king  was  the  spark  that 
kindled  the  fire.  But  the  bad  example  set  by  their  father 
of  depriving  an  older  brother  of  his  throne,  and  the  great 
possessions  and  independence  of  the  dukes,  were  the  un- 
derlying causes.  The  destruction  of  both  the  contending 
parties  was  an  unexpected  solution  and  a  great  gain  for 
Sweden,  whose  fate  appeared  sinister,  with  the  prospect 
of  dismemberment  or  dissolution,  the  dukes  holding  their 
vast  possessions  as  heirlooms. 

During  the  conflict  Norway  had  sided  with  the  dukes, 
Denmark  with  the  king.  Duke  Eric  was  married  to  Inge- 
borg,  only  child  of  King  Hakon  of  Norway,  and  Duke 
Valdemar  to  his  niece  of  the  same  name.  Mattias  KettiU 
mundsson  was,  in  June,  1318,  elected  drotsete  and  regent. 
He  led  an  army  against  Denmark  in  the  interests  of  the 
duchesses,  invading  Scania  and  defeating  the  Danes  near 
Hessleholm.  November  11th  of  the  same  year  peace  was 
made  in  Roeskilde  between  the  kings,  Eric  and  Birger,  on 


f8  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

one  side,  and  King  Hakon  and  the  heirs  ctf  the  dukes, 
on  the  other.  May  8,  1319,  King  Hakon  died,  and  MagntLS 
Ericsson^  the  young  son  of  Duke  Eric,  inherited  the  crown 
of  Norway,  and  July  8th  of  the  same  year  he  was  elected 
king  of  Sweden  at  Mora  in  Upland. 

For  the  attainment  of  this  end  Magnus's  mother,  Duch- 
ess Ingeborg,  and  seven  Swedish  councillors  had  worked 
with  great  activity.  They  had  taken  part  in  shaping  the  first 
Act  of  Union  of  the  North  in  June,  13  "^  9,  and  from  Oslo, 
in  Norway,  hastened  to  have  Magnus  elected  at  the  Stone 
of  Mora,  where  the  Swedish  kings  since  time  immemorial 
were  nominated.  The  Act  of  Union  stipulated  that  the  two 
kingdoms  were  to  remain  perfectly  independent,  the  king 
to  sojourn  an  equally  long  part  of  the  year  in  each,  with 
no  official  of  either  country  to  accompany  him  further  than 
to  the  frontier.  In  their  foreign  relations  the  countries 
were  to  be  independent,  but  to  support  each  other  in  case 
of  war.     The  king  was  the  only  tie  to  bind  them  together. 

There  was  another  Magnus  whose  candidacy  was  spoiled 
by  this  union.  He  was  the  son  of  King  Birger,  already,  as 
s  child,  chosen  king  of  Sweden  in  succession  to  his  father. 
Magnus  Birgersson,  a  prisoner  at  Stockholm,  was  be- 
headed in  1320,  to  make  safe  the  reign  of  his  more  fortu- 
nate cousin.  King  Magnus  was  only  three  years  old,  and 
Drotsete  Mattias  Kettilmundsson  presided  over  the  govern- 
ment during  his  minority,  the  nobles  of  the  state  council 
having  great  power  and  influence.  Both  in  Sweden  and 
Norway  the  nobility  had  by  this  time  attained  a  supremacy 
which  was  oppressive  both  to  the  king  and  the  people,  not 
so  much  through  their  privileges  as  through  the  liberties 
they  took.  Their  continual  feuds  between  themselves  diS' 
turbed  the  peace  of  the  country. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  93 

In  1832,  King  Magnus  took  charge  of  the  government. 
He  was  a  ruler  of  a  benign  and  good  disposition  toward  the 
common  people,  whose  interests  he  always  furthered.  But 
he  lacked  strength  of  character  and  was  not  able  to  control 
the  obnoxious  nobles.  The  provinces  of  Scania  and  Bleking 
suffered  greatly  under  Danish  rule,  which  was  changed  into 
German  oppression  when  handed  over  to  the  counts  of  Hol- 
stein  as  security  for  a  loan.  The  people  of  Scania  rose  in 
revolt  and  asked  for  protection  from  King  Magnus.  At  a 
meeting  in  Kalmar  (in  1332)  both  provinces  were  united 
to  Sweden.  But  the  king  had  to  pay  heavy  amounts  in 
settlement,  which  were  increased  when  Halland  was  pro- 
cured in  a  similar  way. 

King  Magnus  was,  at  his  height  of  power,  one  of  the 
mightiest  monarchs  of  Europe,  having  under  his  rule 
the  entire  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  Finland,  a  realm 
stretching  from  the  Sound  at  Elsinore  to  the  Polar  Sea, 
from  the  river  Neva  to  Iceland  and  Greenland.  In  1335 
King  Magnus  rode  his  "Eriksgata,"  when  he  announced 
that  no  Christian  within  his  realm  should  remain  a  thrall, 
thus  practically  abolishing  the  remnants  of  slavery.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  crowned  with  his  queen,  Blanche 
of  Namur. 

Magnus  took  great  interest  in  legislation.  During  hia 
minority  the  provincial  laws  were  revised.  The  king  him- 
self accomplished  the  great  and  noble  task  of  having  these 
united  into  a  state  law  (landslag),  appointing  a  committee 
of  three  justices  to  do  the  work.  The  clergy  was  consulted, 
but  refused  to  have  ecclesiastical  laws  made  for  the  whole 
kingdom.  The  state  law  was  first  considered  in  1347,  and 
was  put  in  practice  in  1352,  being  both  a  digest  and  an 
elaboration  of  the  ancient  provincial  laws.     In  many  an  in- 


94  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

stance  of  foreign  or  domestic  conflicts,  the  people,  through 
its  enforcement,  found  help  and  shelter  from  the  national 
spirit  of  this  law. 

To  the  financial  difficulties  which  beset  the  reign  of  King 
Magnus  and  made  his  life  a  burden  the  great  plague  was 
added.  '*The  Black  Death,"  in  1350,  came  from  England 
to  Norway  and  spread  with  great  rapidity  and  the  most 
disastrous  consequences  throughout  the  North.  In  certain 
parts  of  Sweden  one-third  of  the  population  perished,  in 
other  parts  even  a  greater  percentage,  the  plague  raging 
with  equal  violence  throughout  all  classes  of  society.  King 
Magnus  had  for  a  long  time  contemplated  revenge  against 
the  invasions  made  by  the  Russians  into  Carelia.  He  under- 
took an  expedition,  under  the  pretext  of  a  crusade,  which 
ended  badly,  the  Swedish  fleet  being  shut  in  by  the  Rus- 
sians and  saved  only  by  means  of  digging  a  canal.  The 
king  was  severely  criticised  for  this  crusade,  which  was  con- 
strued as  a  punishment  for  his  sins,  and,  besides,  largely 
increased  his  debts.  The  pope  was  among  his  creditors, 
who,  upon  non-payment,  placed  Magnus  under  his  ban. 

The  union  with  Norway  was  not  a  happy  one.  As  a 
minor,  Magnus  dwelt  most  of  the  time  in  Norway,  but 
later  principally  in  Sweden.  This  was  contrary  to  the  Act 
of  Union,  the  state  of  things  in  Norway,  furthermore, 
necessitating  the  almost  continual  presence  of  the  king. 
For  this  reason  his  son,  Hakon,  was  chosen  king  of  Nor- 
way, in  1343,  Magnus  remaining  in  power  until  Hakon  be- 
came of  age,  and  his  older  son,  Eric,  chosen  king,  or  heir- 
apparent,  of  Sweden,  in  1344.  It  appears  that  King  Magnus 
was  in  favor  of  this  separation  and  had  preconceived  it  in 
giving  to  his  older  son  the  Swedish  name  of  Eric  and  to  the 
younger  the  Norwegian  name  of  Hakon,  both  equally  char- 


HISTORY    O^   SWEDEN  95 

acteristic  of  the  royal  lines  of  the  respective  countries.     The 
two  young  kings  caused  their  father  considerable  annoy- 
ance; but,  upon  the  early  death  of  Eric,  Hakon  entered  more 
into  harmony  with  King  Magnus.     Valdemar  Atterdag,  the 
crafty  and  enterprising  king  of  Denmark,  took  an  active 
part  in  the  conflicts,  pretending  to  support  Magnus,  while 
simultaneously  depriving  him  of  Scania,  Halland  and  Ble- 
king,  which  he  captured  almost  without  resistance.     He 
landed  in  the  island   of  Gothland,  plundering  Visby  in  a 
treacherous  way.     Upon  his  departure,  his  ships  perished 
in  a  storm,  the  plundered  treasures  going  down  with  these, 
the  king  himself  escaping  with  difficulty.     Valdemar  ar- 
ranged a  marriage  between  his  little  daughter  Margaret  and 
King  Hakon  of  Norway.     Several  Swedish  nobles  of  great 
influence  considered  the  treachery  and  impudence  of  Valde- 
mar and  the  weakness  of  Magnus  as  going  too  far.     They 
offered  the  Swedish  crown  to  Albrecht,  the  son  of  King 
Magnus's  sister   Euphemia.      The  offer  was  accepted  by 
Duke  Albrecht  of  Mecklenburg,  the  father  of  the  young 
Albrecht,  in  behalf  of  his  son.     He  made  a  sudden  assault 
upon  Stockholm  in   1363,   capturing  it.     At  the  Stone  of 
Mora,  Albrecht  the  Younger  was  chosen  king  of  Sweden 
Magnus  was  defeated  and  made  a  prisoner  at  Enkoeping. 
King  Magnus  was  taken  to  Stockholm  and  there  impris- 
oned for  some  time,  heavily  laden  with  chains.     King  Val- 
demar deserted  his  cause,  but  the  common  people  of  Svea- 
land,  with  whom  Magnus  had  always  been  exceedingly 
popular,   rose  in  order  to  free  him.     Soon  King  Hakon 
reached  the  very  gates  of   Stockholm  with  a  Norwegian 
army,  whereupon  Magnus  was  released.     But  he  had  to 
abdicate  his  throne,  leaving  for  Norway,  where  he  died, 
through  an  accident,  in  1374. 


96  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

Albrecht  was  the  rightful  king  of  Sweden.      At  the 
death  of  Eric  he  became  heir-apparent    to    the   Swedish 
throne,  but  for  having  sped  on  the  course  of  events  in  his 
own  interest,  neither  he  nor  his  father  acquired  any  pop- 
iilarity.     They  surrounded  themselves  by  a  great  number 
of  Germans,  who,  through  their  licentiousness  and  over- 
bearing manner,    enraged   the  people.     The  country  was 
practically  in  the  hands  of  a  few  Swedish  nobles,  among 
whom  the   drotsete,   Bo  Jonsson   Grip,  through   his  high 
office  and  his  immense  wealth,   bore  the  supremacy.     Bo 
Jonsson  is  said  to  have  been  the  wealthiest  man  who  evei 
lived  in  the  North,  his  possessions,  fiefs  and  castles  being 
of   an   astounding  number,   the  most  famous  among  the 
latter  being  Gripsholm  in  the   Lake   Mselar.     He  loaned 
money  to  the  king  against  new  castles  and  fiefs  in  secur- 
ity, and  held  Albrecht  in  the  most  humiliating  relation  oi 
dependence.      His  enemies  he  persecuted  without  mercy, 
killing  one  before  the  high  altar  in  the  Franciscan  church 
of  Stockholm.     When  Bo  Jonsson  died,  in  1386,  the  king 
tried  to  better  conditions  by  confiscating  to  the  crown  some 
of  his  possessions.     But  he  met  with  opposition  from  the 
nobles,  who  claimed  that  he  did  so  only  to  enrich  his  Ger- 
man favorites.     The  king  was  helpless  against  his  coun- 
cillors, to  whom  he  had  handed  over  all  his  power.     They 
were  in  possession  of  all  the  fortified  castles,  and  if  one 
of  them  died,  the  king  had  no  right  to  select  a  successoi 
without  their  permission.     The  executors  of  Bo  Jonsson's 
will  ended  by  offering  the  crown  to  Margaret,  Valdemar'g 
daughter,  and  queen-dowager  of  Norway.     She  accepted, 
promising  the  nobles  that  they  should  remain  in  undisturbed 
enjoyment  of  their  great  privileges.    Margaret  sent  an  army 
into  West  Gothland,  consisting  of  men  from  all  three  of  the 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  97 

Scandinavian  countries,  under  the  command  of  the  Swede, 
Eric  Kettilsson.  King  Albrecht  met  with  an  army  to  a 
great  extent  composed  of  German  troops,  and  was  defeated 
and  made  a  prisoner  at  Falkoeping,  February  24,  1389. 
Albrecht  was  imprisoned  at  Lindholm,  in  Scania,  for 
seven  years,  later  returning  to  Mecklenburg. 

To  the  Folkung  period  belongs  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able and  renowned  of  Swedish  women,  herself,  on  her 
mother's  side,  a  Folkung,  St.  Birgitta^  the  daughter  of 
the  legislator  and  first  justice  of  Upland,  Birger  Persson. 
Her  parents  were  both  pious  and  devoted  to  ascetic  prac- 
tices. As  a  child  she  had  visions,  the  holy  Mary  appearing 
to  her.  When  thirteen  years  of  age  she  was  married  to  Ulf 
Gumundsson,  later  justice  of  Nerike,  also  a  pious  man,  with 
whom  she  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Spain.  Birgitta  lost  her 
husband  shortly  afterward.  At  the  Swedish  court,  where 
she  was  the  highest  functionary  of  Queen  Blanche,  she  had 
seen  pohtical  life  at  close  range,  gathering  a  deep  and 
strong  indignation  against  the  mighty  and  powerful  in 
the  world.  Her  husband's  death  moved  her  deeply,  and 
the  reHgious  mysticism  of  her  youth  now  burst  forth  with 
increased  strength,  her  visions  becoming  numerous  and  im- 
portant. That  she  believed  in  them  herself  there  is  no 
doubt,  and  she  made  the  world  believe  her.  At  first  she 
hurled  admonitions  and  curses  against  King  Magnus  and 
his  court;  but  the  wretchedness  of  the  whole  world  attracted 
her  to  its  spiritual  centre,  Rome,  where  she  lived  for  twenty- 
three  years  in  continual  and  open  protest  against  the  vices 
of  the  popes  and  priests.  She  died  in  Rome,  in  1373,  at 
the  age  of  seventy,  after  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  seeing 
the  two  great  ambitions  of  her  life  fulfilled:  the  pope  re- 
turning to  Rome  from  Avignon,  and  her  creation,  the  order 

xxd 


96  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

of  St.  Salvator,  sanctioned  by  the  pope.  Birgitta  was  can- 
onized by  the  pope  in  1391,  through  the  influence  of  Queen 
Margaret. 

Birgitta  was  the  greatest  political-poetic  genius  of  the 
mediaBval  North.  Her  revelations  fill  eight  volumes.  She 
wrote  them  in  Swedish,  and  had  a  priest  translate  them 
into  Latin.  Some  of  her  original  Swedish  work  is  pre- 
served. Birgitta  appears  to  have  thought  in  artistic  images, 
and  these  images  are  of  plastic  form,  often  of  consummate 
beauty,  sometimes  witty,  sometimes  avowedly  comic,  always 
effective.  The  melancholy  charm  of  Sweden's  nature  suf- 
fuses all  her  writings  and  renders  to  her  peculiar  mediaeval 
mysticism  a  national  temperament.  From  Swedish  scener- 
ies and  animal  life  she  borrows  her  most  beautiful  images. 

St.  Birgitta  has  by  some  been  considered  as  a  reformer 
before  Luther,  but  not  quite  correctly.  Luther  reformed  the 
institutions;  Birgitta  aimed  at  reforming  their  upholders, 
and  used  against  the  pope  and  the  priests  a  language  almost 
as  strong  as  Luther's.  Some  of  her  ideas  were  not  strictly 
in  harmony  with  the  Catholic  dogmas;  she  insisted  on  a 
close  personal  union  with  Gk)d,  without  the  mediation  of 
priests  or  saints,  fought  for  a  universal  knowledge  of  the 
Bible  and  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  the  popular  ver- 
naculars, and  considered  the  sale  of  indulgences  a  mortal 
sin.  Four  hundred  and  seventy  convents  of  her  order,  in 
which  men  and  women  were  to  collaborate  for  the  instruc- 
tion and  spiritual  guidance  of  the  people,  were  after  her  death 
founded  in  the  Scandinavian  countries,  Germany,  Esthonia, 
Poland,  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  one  existing  in  England 
up  to  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  The  mother  institution  at 
Vadstena,  in  East  Gothland,  was  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance to  the  cultural  development  of  Sweden  and  the  North. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  99 

One  of  the  greatest  libraries  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  reared, 
and  the  first  book-printing  establishment  of  Sweden  founded 
there  in  1490,  "Within  its  walls  a  considerable  literary  ac- 
tivity prevailed,  the  religious  literature  of  the  time  being 
copied,  or  translated  into  Swedish,  and  many  original  works 
written.  The  Swedish  language,  used  by  the  Birgittine 
school  of  writers,  tried,  by  approaching  Danish  forms,  to 
establish  a  common  literary  language  in  the  North,  the 
Norwegian  having  approached  the  Swedish  during  the 
time  of  the  close  relations  between  the  courts  of  the  two 
countries.  These  efforts,  for  a  time  furthered  by  political 
relations,  were  unfortunately  soon  to  be  abandoned  forever. 
Birgitta  was  a  great  genius  in  fetters.  Her  rare  gifts 
were  kept  back  in  their  development  through  the  idiosyn- 
crasies of  her  period.  She  was  of  an  indomitable,  aristo- 
cratic spirit,  always  remaining  the  noblewoman  to  whom 
it  was  natural  to  speak  the  truth  to  the  princes  of  State  and 
Church,  because  she  considered  herself  their  equal  through 
the  best  blood  of  the  North,  of  which  she  had  her  share. 
This  religious  mystic  was  a  true  child  of  her  aristocratic 
age,  which  gave  to  Sweden  two  parallel  lines,  sometimes 
identical,  of  great  legislators  and  weak  and  indulgent 
princes. 


CHAPTER    VI 

Unionism  versus  Patriotism — Margaret^  Engelbrekt 
and    Charles    Knutsson 

QUEEN  MARGARET,  the  successor  of  Albrecht,  for 
the  first  time  in  history  united  the  three  Scandina- 
vian countries  and  their  dependencies  under  one 
rule.  Born  in  a  prison  in  which  King  Valdemar  of  Den- 
mark had  placed  his  consort,  Queen  Hedvig,  there  remained 
in  the  character  of  Margaret  something  of  the  rigor  and 
chill  of  her  uncomely  birthplace.  "When  she  was  seven, 
she  was  engaged  to  King  Hakon  of  Norway,  and  married 
to  him  at  eleven  years  of  age.  In  Norway,  her  education 
was  continued  for  several  years  after  her  marriage  under 
the  stem  supervision  of  Dame  Martha,  a  daughter  of 
St.  Birgitta,  who  often  applied  corporal  punishment  to  the 
young  queen.  Margaret  early  gave  evidence  of  self-control 
and  power  of  reflection,  and  her  mind  developed  at  the  ex- 
pense of  her  heart.  Her  son  Olaf  became  king  of  Denmark 
upon  Valdemar's  death,  in  1375,  and  king  of  Norway  upon 
that  of  Hakon,  in  1380.  Upon  his  death,  in  1387,  Margaret 
succeeded  him,  and  two  years  later  laid  Sweden  under  her 
sceptre. 

Albrecht  was  captured,  but  the  Germans  still  were  in 
possession  of  several  Swedish  strongholds.      These  yielded 

to  Margaret,  one  after  the  other,  except  Stockholm.     In  the 
(100) 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  101 

capital,  the  German  influx  of  soldiers  and  merchants  had 
made  the  foreign  population  exceedingly  large.  They  now 
acted  as  oppressors.  A  secret  league  was  formed  which 
^ptured  a  great  number  of  prominent  Swedish  citizens, 
who  were  cruelly  tortured  with  wooden  saws  and  then 
thrown  into  an  old  shed  on  the  islet  of  Ksepplingeholm. 
The  shed  was  ignited  and  the  poor  prisoners  suffered  a 
terrible  death.  German  freebooters,  especially  the  Vitalen 
or  Victuallen  Brotherhood,  who  provided  the  fortress  of 
Stockholm  with  victuals,  were  plundering  in  the  Baltic 
and  Lake  Mselar,  and  were  the  allies  of  the  Germans  of 
Stockholm.  Margaret  was  powerless  against  them  until 
she  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Hanseatic  towns. 
This  ended  the  war;  Stockholm  surrendered  and  peace 
was  made,  in  1395.  The  plimders  by  sea-rovers  in  the 
Baltic  were  put  an  end  to  during  Margaret's  reign,  but 
cost  heroic  efforts  and  much  money,  while  the  influence 
of  the  Hansa  grew  into  menacing  proportions. 

Margaret  was  anxious  to  place  the  dynasty  of  the  North 
firmly  within  her  line  of  descent.  In  1389,  she  selected  her 
sister's  grandson,  Eric  of  Pomerania,  then  six  years  old, 
her  successor,  and  he  was  thus  proclaimed  in  Norway.  In 
1395,  Eric  was  chosen  king  of  Denmark  and,  in  1396,  of 
Sweden.  At  his  Swedish  coronation  in  Kalmar,  in  1397, 
Queen  Margaret,  who  remained  at  his  side  as  the  real  ruler, 
had  the  outline  drawn  of  an  Act  of  Union,  which  should 
forever  unite  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  under  one 
ruler.  Each  country  was  to  preserve  its  constitution,  laws 
and  traditions  unmolested,  but  they  were  to  support  each 
other  in  times  of  war.  "When  a  king  was  to  be  chosen, 
representatives  of  equal  numbers  from  each  country  were 
to  meet  in  Halmstad,  the  sons  of  kings  to  be  favored  by 


102  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

choice.  This  Act  of  Union  was  never  carried  into  effect, 
according  to  legal  forms.  The  sketch  or  outline  of  it,  such 
as  it  is  still  preserved,  was  signed  by  representatives  of  the 
three  countries,  although  not  in  equal  numbers;  but  why 
Queen  Margaret  never  allowed  it  to  be  enlarged  into  a 
legally  binding  document  is  not  known.  Her  favorite 
idea  was  therein  embodied,  and  she  appeared  to  have  an 
all-powerful  influence  over  those  necessary  to  carry  it 
through. 

Margaret  made  it  her  object  to  strengthen  the  crown 
and  reduce  the  power  of  the  nobles.  She  cared  naught 
about  keeping  her  promises  to  the  latter,  confiscating  their 
castles  and  possessions,  and  annulling  their  privileges. 
When  they  complained,  reminding  her  of  her  promises  in 
her  letters  to  them,  she  rephed;  "Keep  my  letters;  I  shall 
certainly  keep  your  castles."  All  nobles  created  by  Al- 
brecht  were  entirely  deprived  of  their  privileges  if  they 
could  not  prove  their  due  qualifications.  The  majority  of 
forts  erected  during  the  war  were  pulled  down.  No  taxes 
were  longer  imposed,  except  through  written  order  of  the 
government.  These  reforms  were  all  rigorously  carried 
out,  according  to  the  "Restitution  of  Nykoeping"  of  1396. 
Margaret  succeeded  in  a  remarkable  way  in  reducing  to 
normal  proportions  the  power  and  influence  of  the  Swedish 
nobility.  The  nobles,  who  were  all-powerful  and  abso- 
lutely unyielding  in  Albrecht's  days,  bowed  to  her  grace- 
fully and  received  meekly  her  severe  conditions.  An 
explanation  can  be  found  in  the  fact  that  they  had  no  leader 
of  authority  and  power  among  them,  after  the  death  of 
Bo  Jonsson  Grip.  Further,  Margaret  was  careful  not  to 
fill  the  important  offices  of  drotsete  and  marsk,  when 
vacant,   thus    making    the    personal    presence    and    inter- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  103 

ferenoe   of    the   sovereign    necessary    on    all    important 
occasions. 

The  love  of  the  Swedish  people  should  have  been  Mar- 
garet's reward  for  her  abolition  of  aristocratic  oppression, 
if  she  had  not  been  in  a  position  which  necessitated  the 
imposition  of  heavy  taxes.     The  existence  of  the  common 
people  was  made  weary  and  troublesome  through  the  pay- 
ment of  the  "queen's  tax,"  the  "stake  tax"  on  each  hearth, 
the  "rump  tax"  on  each  head  of  cattle,  and,  worst  of  all,  the 
"Gothland's  release."     Bailiffs,  often  of  foreign  birth,  col- 
lected these  taxes  with  great  severity.     When  the  queen  be- 
came aware  of  the  complaints  against  her  and  her  bailiffs, 
she  asked  in  a  letter  to  the  archbishop  that  the  people  would 
forgive  her  in  God's  name.     "Some  of  it  one  has  not  been 
able  to  better;  some  we  and  they  might  well  have  bettered, 
although  what  is  done  is  done."     Without  doubt,  there  was 
due  reason  for  the  heavy  taxes  in  the  unsettled  relations 
with  other  countries  which  existed  during  Margaret's  reign; 
the  support  of  the  Hansa  and  a  war  with  Holstein,  com- 
menced by  King  Eric,  were  expensive.    The  island  of  Goth- 
land had  been  captured  by  the  so-called  German  Order  in 
the  last  days  of  Albrecht's  reign.     When  the  island  was  re- 
deemed through  the  payment  of  Swedish  money,  Margaret 
made  the  mistake  of  installing  there  a  Danish  bailiff,  and 
It  thus  for  a  long  time  remained  a  Danish  province.     Mar- 
garet believed  in  the  Union  and  counted  no  Scandinavian 
a  foreigner  in  either  coimtry.     But  it  was  contrary  to  Swed- 
ish law  to  install  foreigners  as  bailiffs  and  vassals,  and  as 
she  appointed  a  great  number  of  Danes  to  Swedish  fiefs, 
and  never  a  Swede  to  Danish  positions  of  the  same  or 
equal  importance,  the  Swedish  complaints,  on  this  point, 
were  justified. 


2CH  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

Margaret  was  as  severe  toward  the  eocIesiastiGS  as 
toward  the  nobles.  But  when  she  noticed  the  forebodingsi 
of  powerful  resistance,  she  made  important  oonoessioQs. 
She  was  anxious  to  observe  religious  practioes,  joining  tha 
convent  of  Vadstena  as  a  "worldly  sister,"  kisdng  the  hands 
of  all  the  monks  and  nuns  on  that  occasion.  She  took  intw> 
est  in  the  conversion  of  the  Laps,  sending  a  baptized  woman 
of  their  race,  by  the  name  of  Margaret,  to  preach  the  Gospel 
among  them. 

The  war  witii  Holstein  ccncerning  the  possession  of 
Schleswig  had  been  brought  to  an  armistice,  and  the 
queen  sailed  to  Flensburg  to  conduct  further  negotiations. 
While  still  on  board  of  her  ship,  death  surprised  her,  in 
1412. 

Margaret  has  been  called  the  Semiramis  of  the  North 
and  well  deserves  her  widespread  fame.  During  her  reign, 
the  Northern  countries,  through  her  wisdom  and  strength, 
enjoyed  a  degree  of  order  which  they  missed  both  before 
and  after.  She  put  an  end  to  the  foreign  influence  which 
had  governed  Sweden.  Yet  her  rule  was  a  disappointment, 
and  the  Union  also.  She  paved  the  way  for  a  new  foreign 
influence,  by  making  a  German  prince  her  successor  and 
by  leaning  too  much  on  the  Hansa.  The  aristocratic  op- 
pression was  crushed  by  her,  but  she  introduced  the  oppres- 
sion through  royal  bailiffs.  She  promised  to  preserve  the 
old  territory  of  Sweden  unmolested,  but  placed  the  island 
of  Gothland  under  Denmark.  The  Union  of  which  Queen 
Margaret  was  the  champion  her  successors  were  not  able 
to  grasp  or  uphold  in  the  spirit  of  her  good  intentions.  To 
Sweden  it  came  in  an  inauspicious  time  when  it  was  not 
fit  to  receive  it.  Foreign  oppression  had  irritated  the  people 
to  resistance,  and  discontent  was  to  give  life  to  patriotism. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  105 

Sweden  had  recently  developed  into  one  joint  constitu- 
tional body,  the  various  provinces  giving  up  their  an- 
cient laws  for  a  state  law,  in  which  the  old  individual 
traits  were  gathered  and  recognized.  We  know  how  Swe- 
den was  settled,  not  by  various  tribes,  but  by  pioneers  who, 
from  the  old  home  of  culture,  Scania,  penetrated  to  the 
wilderness  above,  settling  one  district  after  the  other, 
which,  one  by  one,  developed  into  provinces,  little  states 
by  themselves,  later  united  into  one  realm  with  a  common 
king.  One  by  one  these  provinces  had  taken  the  lead  in 
the  political  and  cultural  development,  often  the  youngest 
before  the  oldest.  Thus  the  Swedes,  a  younger  branch  of 
the  Gauts,  gave  their  name  to  the  country  and  furnished 
the  rulers,  the  Guts  of  the  island  of  Gothland  securing  the 
commercial  supremacy  of  the  sea,  and  the  Rus  of  the  out- 
skirts of  Upland  founding  the  Russian  empire.  Now  it  fell 
upon  Dalecarlia,  the  most  recently  settled  of  Swedish  prov- 
inces, to  save  freedom  and  independence  to  a  newly  regen- 
erated state  which  was  awakening  to  the  consciousness  of 
its  solidarity  of  interests,  aspirations  and  duties.  From 
Dalecarlia  came  the  first  great  political  leader.  From  there 
he  and  his  later  successors  received  their  chief  support. 

Engelhrekt  Engelhrektsson  is  the  earliest  and  greatest 
of  the  patriotic  heroes  of  Swedish  history.  To  the  glory  of 
his  deeds  and  the  noble  simplicity  of  his  character  the  death 
of  a  martyr  gives  added  lustre.  Engelhrekt  was  bom  at 
Kopparberg,  in  the  mining  district  of  Dalecarlia,  where 
there  were  many  German  settlers.  Possibly  his  early  an- 
cestors were  among  them ;  but  for  three  generations  at  least 
they  had  been  native-born  Swedes,  Engelhrekt 's  father, 
as  he  himself,  belonging  to  the  Swedish  nobility,  although 
not  of  the  influential  families.     Engelhrekt  had  received  the 


106  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

chivalric  education  of  his  time  at  the  courts  of  the  great 
nobles,  being  next  in  rank  to  a  knight,  vcepnare  (squire), 
at  the  opening  of  his  career.  He  was  small  of  stature,  but 
eloquent,  courageous  and  of  a  lofty  mind.  The  integrity 
of  his  character  was  absolute;  his  personal  necessities  were 
few  and  plain. 

King  Eric  was  a  highly  educated  and  refined  man,  not 
without  a  certain  ability,  but  entirely  without  discernment 
and  patience  for  the  various  demands  and  conditions  of  the 
countries  over  which  he  was  set  to  rule.  His  foreign  bail- 
iffs in  Sweden,  mostly  Danes,  with  a  fair  sprinkling  of 
Germans  and  Italians,  were  still  less  in  sympathy  with  his 
Swedish  subjects.  They  tried  to  manage  them  as  they  did 
the  Danes  and  the  inhabitants  of  more  southern  countries, 
for  centuries  accustomed  to  slavery,  ignorant  of  the  ancient 
spirit  of  independence  of  the  Swedish  yeomanry,  abated 
but  not  suppressed.  When  oppression  no  longer  kept  within 
reasonable  bounds,  the  Swedish  patience  came  to  an  end, 
and  first  in  the  youngest  and  most  wlitary  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  most  hated  of  Danish  bailiffs  was  Joesse  Ericsson, 
of  Westmanland  and  Dalecarha.  After  having  confiscated 
the  horses  of  the  peasants,  he  is  said  tx)  have  harnessed  the 
men  to  plows  and  the  women  to  grain-loads,  once  suffo- 
cating five  peasants.  Engelbrekt  felt  compassion  for  the 
misery  of  the  suffering  people  and  accepted  the  commission 
to  seek  the  king,  to  make  complaints  in  their  behalf.  He 
appeared  before  King  Eric  in  Denmark,  demanding  punish- 
ment of  the  cruel  bailiff  and  offering  to  go  into  prison  or 
surrender  his  life  if  not  speaking  the  truth,  as  was  the 
custom  of  the  time.  The  king  gave  him  a  letter  to  the 
Swedish  council  of  state,  demanding  an  inquiry  which  was 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  107 

promptly  mada.     When  Engelbrekt  for  a  second  time  ap- 
peared with  the  corroboration  of  his  statements  from  tha 
Swedish  councillors,   the  king  sent  him  away  in  a  fit  of 
impatient  rage.     Upon   his  return,   the  Dalecarlians  rose 
in  a  body,  selecting  Engelbrekt  as  their  leader  and  march- 
ing south  to  Westeros.     The  councillors  met  and  promised 
to  have  justice  done  in  the  case.     But  things  remained  the 
same  until  the  following  spring,  in  1434.     At  midsummer 
the  Dalecarlians  commenced  operations.     The  fort  of  Bor- 
gansBS  and  the  castle  of  Keeping  were  destroyed.      Engel- 
brekt asked  the  people  of  Westmanland  to  join  him,  which 
they  did  to  a  man,  the  nobles  also  joining  upon  evidence 
of  the  determination  of  the  popular  leader.     In  Upsala, 
Engelbrekt  found  the  people  of  Upland  ready  to  join,  and 
he  made  clear  to  the  great  multitudes  the  mission  he  had 
undertaken.     He  now  felt  strong  enough  to  take  a  hand 
in  the  affairs  of  state;  with  the  consent  of  the  leading 
nobles  reducing  the  taxes  by  one-third.     Engelbrekt  called 
upon  a  young,  high-spirited  nobleman,  Eric  Puke,  to  bring 
Norrland  to  revolt  and  destroy  the  forts  of  that  district, 
which  commissions  Puke  fulfilled  to  the  letter,  thereupon 
reinforcing  -Engelbrekt  with  his  men.     In  the  meantime, 
the  people  of  western  Soedermanland  rose  by  their  own 
determination,  destroying  Gripsholm ;  the  bailiff  of  the  cas- 
tle escaping  with  his  treasures  in  boats  over  Lake  Mselar. 
In  Vermland  and  Dal  the  people  followed  these  examples 
of  revolt.    The  commander  of  the  Stockholm  fortress  agreed 
upon  an  armistice,  other  castles  surrendering  or  promising 
to  surrender. 

Engelbrekt  met  the  council  of  state  at  Vadstena,  escorted 
by  1,000  men  of  his  best  troops.  Without  fear  or  haughti- 
ness, he  pleaded  the  cause  of  his  country,  advising  the  coun- 


108  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

cillors  in  firm  and  eloquent  words  to  see  to  it  that  the  for- 
eign oppression  came  to  an  end.  The  council  hesitated, 
Bishop  Knut  of  Linkoeping  stating  that  the  oath  to  the 
king  could  not  be  broken.  To  this  Engelbrekt  answered 
that  the  king  had  pledged  many  oaths  but  kept  none, 
for  which  reason  the  people  were  freed  from  their  oath. 
Upon  a  wholesome  demonstration  of  force  the  councillors 
gave  in  and  dictated  a  letter  in  which  they  broke  their 
pledge  to  King  Eric,  yet  giving  as  an  excuse  that  they 
were  compelled  to  do  so.  The  revolt  had  now  spread  to  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  at  least  100,000  being  armed  to  meet 
the  emergency.  But  so  carefully  and  quietly  was  the  work 
of  hberation  performed  that  no  harm  was  done  in  the  parts 
where  the  peasant  armies  were  moving.  After  having 
entered  Halmstad,  Engelbrekt  returned  to  Westeros,  where 
the  army  was  scattered,  but  soon  gathered  again  upon  the 
report  that  the  king  with  a  fleet  was  approaching  Stock- 
holm. Upon  his  arrival,  the  king  found  Stockholm  en- 
closed by  a  peasant  army  and  returned  to  Denmark,  forced 
to  agree  to  an  armistice.  At  a  meeting  in  Arboga,  Engel- 
brekt was  elected  regent.  This  was  the  first  meeting  in 
which  representatives  of  the  merchant  class  send  the  yeo- 
manry took  part,  being  thus  the  first  riksdag  or  parliament 
composed  of  the  four  Estates  —  noblemen,  ecclesiastics, 
burghers,   and  yeomen. 

King  Eric  promised,  upon  his  return  to  Stockholm,  to 
govern  the  country  according  to  its  laws  and  through  Swed- 
ish men,  appointing  Krister  Nilsson  Vasa  drotsete,  and 
Charles  Knutsson  Bonde  marsk.  But  so  badly  did  he  keep 
his  promises  that  he  was  once  more  dethroned.  The  nobles 
hastened  to  elect  Charles  Knutsson  regent,  but  through 
pressure  which  the  peasants  brought  to  bear  it  was  agreed 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  109 

l^t  he  should  share  his  power  with  Engelbrekt  and  lead 
the  siege  of  Stockholm,  while  the  latter  should  free  the 
country  from  the  bailiffs  reinstalled  by  the  king. 

Upon  his  second  tour  through  the  country,  Engelbrekt 
was  seized  by  illness,  but  being  called  to  Stockholm  by  an 
important  state  affair,  he  started  over  the  lakes  thither  from 
CErebro.  One  evening  he  stopped  at  an  islet  in  Lake  Hiel- 
mar  for  the  night.  When  he  saw  a  boat  approach  with 
Mons  Bengtsson  on  board  he  staggered  on  a  crutch  down 
to  receive  him.  This  man  sprang  ashore  and  assaulted 
Engelbrekt,  who  tried  to  ward  off  the  blows  of  the  axe 
with  his  crutch,  but  failing  to  do  so  he  was  killed  on  the 
spot,  in  April,  1436.  The  perpetrator  of  this  beastly  mur- 
der was  a  son  of  a  noble  with  whom  Engelbrekt  had  been 
engaged  in  some  controversy  which  he  had  recently  settled 
to  the  satisfaction  of  both  parties.  The  murderer  escaped; 
but,  although  shielded  from  punishment  by  Marsk  Charles 
Knutsson,  he  was  shunned  by  everybody,  his  high-born  and 
wealthy  relations  for  several  centuries  refusing  to  carry  the 
proud  family  name  (Natt  och  Dag)  upon  which  he  had 
brought  shame. 

The  memory  of  Engelbrekt  is  one  of  the  most  honored 
and  most  beloved  in  Swedish  history.  He  waged  the  first 
battle  against  the  oppression  which  foreign  intrigues  had 
brought  upon  his  country,  and  saved  from  the  peril  of 
slavery  the  ancient  freedom  and  independence  of  the  Swed- 
ish people. 

Through  a  remarkable  coincidence,  a  cousin  of  Engel- 
brekt's  murderer.  Nils  Bosson,  a  young  follower  of  tho 
popular  hero,  who  took  his  mother's  family  name  of  Sture, 
was  to  become  the  father  and  grandfather  of  two  of  the 
most  revered  of  Engelbrekt's  successors;  Nils  Bosson  him- 


110  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

self  being  as  sympathetic  and  upright  a  type  of  noble- 
man as  any  time  or  country  has  produced. 

Charles  Knutsson,  after  Engelbrekt's  death,  was  the 
most  influential  man  in  Sweden.  But  he  was  a  very  differ- 
ent man.  Belonging  to  the  highest  aristocracy,  he  was  him- 
self of  great  wealth,  highly  talented,  well  read,  and  a  great 
traveller.  He  was  exceedingly  handsome,  dignified,  ami- 
able, eloquent,  and  possessed  a  voice  of  unusual  charm  and 
strength.  But  he  was  a  prey  to  ambition,  determined  to 
make  his  way  to  the  throne,  but  little  careful  in  the  selec- 
tion of  his  means  toward  that  end.  He  aroused  the  sus- 
picion and  hatred  of  Eric  Puke,  whom  he  irritated  to  revolt 
only  to  get  him  in  his  power.  This  noble  but  headstrong 
man  was  executed  for  treason,  while  Drotsete  Krister  Nils- 
son,  who  signed  the  death-warrant  in  the  interest  of 
Charles,  himself  was  persecuted  by  the  latter  and  deprived 
of  all  his  fiefs  save  one.  Charles  showed  great  severity  in 
punishing  the  peasants,  who  were  Puke's  supporters,  four 
of  them  being  burned  alive;  thus  losing  the  popular 
sympathy,  while  becoming  an  object  of  envy  in  the 
eyes  of  the  nobles.  These  recalled  King  Eric,  who 
was  again  found  impossible  and  soon  dethroned  also  in 
Denmark. 

Christopher  of  Bavaria^  a  nephew  of  Eric,  was  elected 
to  succeed  him  (in  1440)  by  the  nobles  of  Denmark  and 
Sweden.  He  was  a  good-natured  man,  who  allowed  the 
aristocrats  of  Sweden  to  rule  as  they  pleased,  only  keeping 
an  eye  on  Charles  Knutsson.  Christopher  died  in  1448. 
During  his  reign  a  new  state  law  was  issued  in  1442,  called 
"King  Christopher's  land's  law,"  although  the  king  prob- 
ably had  very  little  to  do  with  its  form  or  stipulations.  It 
offered  a  few  improvements,  but  in  general  so  closely  resem- 


HISTORY  OF   SWEDEN  111 

bled  the  older  state  law  that  the  one  was  often  mistaken  for 
the  other  and  both  remained  valid  until  1736. 

Charles  Knutsson  {Charles  VIII.)  returned  from  Pin- 
land,  which  duchy  had  been  held  under  his  supremacy,  four 
months  after  Christopher's  death,  and  was  by  an  over- 
whelming majority  elected  king  of  Sweden.  Shortly  after 
his  coronation  at  Upsala  he  was  elected  king  of  Norway 
and  crowned  at  Drontheim,  in  1449.  His  reign  opened  with 
a  lucky  expedition  to  the  island  of  Gothland.  But  in  tho 
following  year  King  Charles  lost  both  Gothland  and  Nor- 
way to  Christian  of  Denmark,  with  whom  the  Unionist 
party  of  Sweden  entered  into  secret  plots  against  the  king. 
Invasions  and  intrigues  followed.  Christian  invaded  Sma- 
land,  East  Gothland  and  Vermland,  to  which  Charles 
responded  by  an  invasion  of  Scania,  destroying  the  old 
town  of  Lund  with  nineteen  of  its  twenty  churches,  the 
cathedral  alone  being  spared.  Christian  took  revenge  by 
an  invasion  of  West  Gothland,  capturing  Loedoese.  An- 
other Danish  army  marched  through  East  Gothland,  but 
met  defeat  at  Holaveden  through  an  onslaught  made  by 
Swedish  peasants.  The  valiant  Tord  Bonde,  a  cousin 
of  King  Charles,  took  the  Danes  by  surprise,  recapturing 
Loedoese.  An  armistice  of  two  years  was  agreed  on,  in 
May,  1453. 

In  the  battle  against  open  and  secret  enemies  things 
turned  out  badly  for  King  Charles.  The  best  supporter  of 
his  cause,  his  cousin  Tord,  was  murdered  by  a  Danish  traitor 
in  his  service,  in  1456,  and  a  new  and  dangerous  enemy  was 
encountered  in  the  Church.  The  king  had  confiscated  to  the 
crown  a  number  of  estates  which  the  Church  had  gained 
in  an  illegal  way.  While  preparing  for  an  expedition  to 
CEland,  and  having  instructed  the  archbishop  to  gather 


113  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

troops  for  him,  Charles  learned  that  this  man,  Joens 
Bengtsson  Oxenstiema,  had  turned  against  him.  The 
archbishop  deposited  his  ecclesiastical  robe  at  the  high 
altar  of  the  Upsala  cathedral  and  started,  sword  in  hand, 
with  his  forces  to  meet  the  king.  Charles  tried  to  surprise 
him,  but  was  himself  caught  in  a  trap  and  met  his  enemy 
on  the  ice  of  Lake  Mselar.  The  encounter  proved  a  defeat 
to  Charles,  who  in  haste  stored  his  treasures  in  a  convent 
in  Stockholm  and  sailed  for  Dantzic. 

Christian  of  Denmark  was  called  in  by  the  archbishop 
and  chosen  king  of  Sweden.  Christian  was  a  sagacious 
ruler,  but  his  great  need  of  money,  incurred  by  the  redeem- 
ing of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  made  him  unpopular.  As 
the  easy-going  Christopher  had  been  surnamed  *' Bark-king," 
on  account  of  dearth  experienced  in  Sweden  during  his 
reign,  when  the  people  had  to  mix  bark  with  their  flour, 
thus  Christian,  on  account  of  his  avidity,  was  called  "The 
Bottomless  Purse.'*  During  Christian's  war  with  Russia, 
the  archbishop  was  commissioned  to  collect  the  increased 
taxes,  but  failing  to  do  so,  to  the  full  extent  demanded, 
he  was  imprisoned  at  the  command  of  the  king.  This 
caused  indignation. 

Kettil  Karlsson  Vasa,  a  nephew  of  the  archbishop,  and 
the  bishop  of  Linkoeping,  revolted  and  defeated  the  king 
and  his  army  at  Haraker's  church,  in  Westmanland,  in 
1464.  The  victors  then  marched  on  Stockholm.  The  pop- 
ular opinion  of  the  country  demanded  the  reinstalla- 
tion of  King  Charles.  The  peasants  wanted  him  **  because 
Sweden  was  of  old  a  kingdom,  not  a  regent's  land  or  a 
diocese."  King  Charles  returned  in  the  same  year,  but 
soon  left  the  throne  again  on  account  of  a  conflict  with 
Bishop  Kettil.      This  latter  turned  to  Christian,   promis- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  119 

ing  a  safe  return  to  the  crown  if  he  set  free  the  arch- 
bishop. Christian  immediately  did  so,  the  worthy  bishops 
commencing  operations  against  Charles,  who,  defeated  and 
forsaken  by  all,  abdicated  his  throne,  January  30,  1465. 
The  once  upon  a  time  richest  man  of  Sweden  was  now 
deprived  of  aU,  Christian  having  taken  his  hidden  treas- 
ures. He  retired  to  Raseborg,  a  castle  in  Finland,  which 
after  some  hesitation  was  granted  him.  **We  have,'*  wrote 
he,  "in  such  manner  departed  from  Sweden,  that  nevee 
longeth  us  to  return  thither  the  third  time."  He  also  com- 
plained of  his  misery  in  the  following  strophe  of  assonance 
verse: 

While  I  was  lord  of  Fogelwick 
Then  I  was  both  mighty  and  rich, 
But  since  made  the  king  of  Svea  land 
I  am  a  poor  and  unhappy  man. 

Great  confusion  reigned  in  Sweden  during  the  next  two 
years.  Bishop  Kettil,  who  styled  himself  regent,  tried  to 
conduct  the  government  in  common  with  the  archbishop, 
but  the  great  nobles  did  their  own  pleasure.  At  last  one 
of  them,  Ivar  Axelson  Tott,  who  had  the  island  of  Goth- 
land in  fief,  joined  the  party  of  Charles,  marrying  his 
daughter.  His  brother,  Eric  Axelson,  was  made  regent. 
Nils  Bosson  Sture  had  been  repeatedly  asked  to  accept  this 
dignity,  as  also  the  crown,  but  he  refused.  He  and  Sten 
Sture,  of  the  original  Sture  family,  who  led  the  army  under 
Bishop  Kettil  at  Haraker,  now  made  possible  the  second 
reinstallation  of  Charles,  in  14f>7,  the  ambitious  archbishop 
dying  in  the  same  year.  But  Charles  was  old  and  weary 
of  the  vanities  of  life,  for  which  he  had  made  so  many  sacri- 
fices. It  was  only  the  valor  and  strength  of  the  two  Stures 
that  made  it  possible  for  him  to  keep  the  crown  and  to  die 


114  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

in  the  purple,  in  1470.  He  designated  Sten  Sture  as  hia 
successor  at  the  rudder  of  state,  but  warned  him  not  to 
seek  the  crown.  "That  ambition,"  be  said,  "has  crushed 
my  happiness  and  cost  my  life." 

Charles  is  very  sympathetically  dealt  with  in  the  New 
Bhymed,  or  Charles  Chronicle,  probably  written  by  one  of 
his  men,  who  flatters  him,  as  did  the  Old  Chronicle  the 
ill-fated  Duke  Eric.  Still  the  Charles  Chronicle  and  its 
continuations,  the  Sture  Chronicles,  are  very  important 
historic  sources  of  these  periods  of  Unionism  versus  Patriot- 
ism, from  Margaret  to  Qustavus  Vasa.  The  less  reliable 
Prose  Chronicle  and  the  later  historic  works  by  Ericus  Olai, 
Johannis  Magnus  and  Glaus  Petri,  also  throw  light  upon 
them.  What  all  of  these  have  in  common  is  a  fiery 
patriotic  spirit,  entirely  lacking  in  the  placid  and  artistic 
lines  of  the  Old  Chronicle  as  compared  to  the  New.  With 
the  seeds  of  patriotism  were  sowed  those  of  national  hatred 
against  a  foreign  foe.  That  the  Dane  and  not  the  German 
was  destined  to  be  this  national  enemy  was  disastrous  to  the 
Union  of  the  North,  but  probably  a  gain  for  the  cultural 
development  of  Sweden.  This  period  is  rich  in  shorter 
poems  on  political  men  and  conditions,  all  of  a  strongly 
democratic  flavor.  Among  these  the  song  about  his  friend 
Engelbrekt,  by  Bishop  Thomas  of  Strengnses,  occupies  a 
high  place,  but  a  still  higher  one  the  Song  of  Liberty,  by 
the  same  high-minded  patriot 


CHAPTER   VII 

Unionism    versus    Patriotism — Uncrowned   Kings  of 
the    Sture    Families 

STEN  STURE  THE  ELDER  was  chosen  regent  by 
the  council  of  state  and  elected  by  the  people 
at  the  Riksdag  of  Arboga,  in  1471.  For  more  than 
half  a  century  following  upon  the  reign  of  Charles  VIII., 
Sweden  was  governed  by  uncrowned  kings,  with  the  inter- 
mission of  a  few  years.  These  regents  had  not  any  repub- 
lican ideals  in  mind,  nor  were  they  secretly  coveting  the 
crown.  Their  ambition  was  simply  to  uphold  a  strong  and 
firm  national  government  by  means  of  which  foreign  lord- 
ships could  be  made  impossible,  the  people  enjoy  their  rights 
and  their  liberty,  and  the  government  increase  in  power  and 
authority  at  the  expense  of  Church  and  nobility.  The  policy 
laid  down  by  Sten  Sture  the  Elder,  and  strictly  adhered  to 
by  him  and  his  successors,  was  of  the  broadly  democratic 
spirit  of  Engelbrekt.  This  policy  was  strengthened  by  the 
high  esteem  in  which  the  regents  were  held.  Yet  their 
position  was  a  very  difficult  one,  for  although  enjoying  the 
full  confidence  of  the  people,  they  were  regarded  with  envy 
and  suspicion  by  the  aristocracy,  who  never  could  be  per- 
suaded but  that  these  noble  uncrowned  rulers  were  secretly 
scheming  for  obtainance  of  the  royal  crown. 

Sten  Sture  had  the  good  fortune  to  inaugurate  his  reign 

(115) 


116  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

with  a  glorious  victory  over  King  Christian,  which  put  an 
end  to  Danish  invasions  during  a  whole  generation.  Chris- 
tian arrived  at  Stockholm  with  a  fine  fleet  and  a  magnificent 
army,  taking  his  position  at  Brunkeberg,  close  to  the  north 
of  the  capital.  Here  a  long  and  fierce  battle  was  fought, 
October  10,  1471.  Sten  Sture  commanded  a  large  army  of 
peasants,  attacking  Christian's  fortified  position  from  the 
north,  supported  by  Knut  Posse,  with  burgher  troops,  from 
the  south.  At  the  third  attack  victory  was  won,  Nils  Bos- 
son  Sture  arriving  on  the  battle  scene  with  an  army  of 
Dalecarlians.  King  Christian  was  wounded  in  the  mouth; 
the  famous  Danish  Oriflamme,  Dannebrog,  was  captured, 
being  surrounded  by  five  hundred  corpses  of  select  Danish 
knights.  Through  the  prestige  of  the  great  victory  at 
Bnmkeberg,  Sten  Sture  managed  to  give  Sweden  ten 
years  of  undisturbed  peace  and  comfort.  Encouraged  by 
the  victory  over  the  foreign  invaders,  the  city  of  Stock- 
holm took  the  lead  in  ridding  the  towns  of  undue  influ- 
ence, caused  by  the  supremacy  of  German  commerce.  The 
town  laws  held  a  stipulation  that  half  the  number  of  coun- 
cillors in  each  town  council  should  be  Germans.  A  petition 
headed  by  the  burghers  of  Stockholm  and  circulated  throu^ 
the  towns  was  acted  upon,  the  council  of  state  abolishing 
by  law  the  stipulation  in  question.  Free  markets  were  es-, 
tablished  in  the  commercial  centres  Kalmar  and  Soederkoep- 
ing,  and  a  new  commercial  town  was  founded  on  the  Gotha 
River,  to  be  called  Gothahamn,  although  the  name  was 
changed  to  Few  Loedoese.  In  spite  of  the  supremacy  of 
the  Hanseatic  League,  conunerce  was  good,  the  Iron  mines 
of  Dalecarlia,  Westmanland,  Nerike  and  Eastern  Vermland 
growing  in  importance,  and  silver  being  produced  by  various 
mines  in  Dalecarlia. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  117 

Lord  Sten  gave  careful  and  loving  attention  to  the  needs 
of  the  yeomanry  and  the  common  people.  He  kept  an  open 
and  watchful  eye  on  the  bailiffs,  and  carried  out  the  de- 
mands of  justice  with  severity.  Many  farms,  desolate  and 
neglected  during  the  times  of  war,  were  brought  under  cul« 
tivation.  Lord  Sten  made  no  decision  in  any  matter  of  im- 
portance without  consulting  the  yeomen  and  the  burghers, 
as  well  as  the  nobles,  at  Biksdagar,  the  parliamentary  nat- 
ure of  which  was  further  developed.  With  a  firm  hand  hq 
held  the  nobles  down  to  order  and  the  requirements  of  a 
national  democratic  policy.  The  powerful  brothers  Ivar 
and  Eric  Tott  especially  caused  him  annoyance,  the  former 
holding  the  island  of  Gothland,  the  latter  the  duchy  of  Fin- 
land, in  fief.  It  came  to  open  hostilities  with  Ivar  Tott 
who,  defeated  and  deprived  of  his  castles,  fled  to  Denmark, 
taking  revenge  by  turning  the  much  contested  island  over 
to  said  power. 

Lord  Sten  was  a  very  pious  man,  but  he  held  the 
ecclesiastics  under  strict  surveillance  on  account  of  their 
unpatriotic  tendencies.  But  he  collaborated  with  them 
for  the  establishment  of  a  state  university  at  Upsala,  in 
which  the  archbishop,  Jacob  Ulfsson,  was  greatly  inter- 
ested. Sanctioned  by  the  pope,  the  university  was  opened 
in  1477,  with  great  ceremonies.  One  of  its  earliest  profess- 
ors was  Ericus  Olai,  the  author  of  the  first  but  rather  uncrit- 
ical work  of  Swedish  history.  Chronica  Regnl  Gothorum, 
written  in  awkward  mediaeval  Latin,  but  in  a  style  at- 
tractive through  its  vivacity.  Latin  was  chiefly  used  by 
the  learned  and  literary  men.  The  cloisters  and  the  cathe- 
drals had  schools  where  the  young  people  were  trained  for 
the  learned  professions,  chiefly  the  Church.  For  a  univer- 
sity education,  the  institutions  of  Cologne,  Prague,  Leipzig 


118  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

and  Bologna,  but  chiefly  Paris,  the  greatest  of  them  all,  had 
been  sought.  The  Swedes  had  three  collegia  in  Paris,  and 
the  Scandinavians  held  there  an  honored  position  as  schol- 
ars, the  Swedes  three  times  filling  the  office  of  rector 
or  president  of  the  Paris  imiversity,  the  highest  dignity  of 
learning  in  the  world.  Ingeborg  Tott,  the  wife  of  Sten  Sture, 
was  a  great  friend  of  learning,  having  books  printed  at  her 
expense  and  collecting  a  large  library  in  the  convent  of 
Mariefred,  founded  by  Lord  Sten. 

The  peace  of  the  country  was  disturbed  by  a  war  with 
Russia.  Attacks  on  the  castle  of  Viborg  had  been  made 
shortly  after  the  battle  of  Brunkeberg,  but  warded  off  by 
Eric  Tott,  who  in  return  invaded  Russian  territory.  After 
his  death  the  valiant  Knut  Posse  was  made  commander  of 
Viborg.  The  Russians,  in  1495,  made  a  violent  attack  upon 
the  castle,  damaging  it  considerably.  But  Posse  led  the 
defence  with  superior  skill,  repulsing  the  enemy  with  as- 
tounding force.  This  deed  has  become  famous  in  popular 
traditions,  both  Swedes  and  Russians  crediting  Posse  with 
an  alliance  of  a  supernatural  order.  The  regent  himself 
twice  headed  expeditions  to  Finland,  forcing  a  new  Rus- 
sian army  to  retire  over  the  frontier.  Affairs  were  going 
badly  on  account  of  unsafety  in  Finland,  and  dearth  and 
intrigues  in  Sweden.  The  council  of  state  accused  Lord 
Sten  of  not  doing  all  he  could  for  Finland  while  secretly 
fanning  the  discontent  of  the  commanders,  who  made  per- 
sonal sacrifices  of  time  and  money  by  remaining  with  the 
army.  It  came  to  hot  words  between  Lord  Sten  and 
the  commander  Svante  Sture,  the  son  of  Nils  Bosson.  He 
returned  home,  although  Lord  Sten  told  him  he  was  a 
deserter  in  so  doing,  **fieeing  from  the  banner  of  «tate." 
Svante  Sture,  who  with  Posse  had  made  a  glorious  inroad 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  119 

upon  Russian  territory,  now  joined  the  aristocratic  enemies 
of  the  regent,  calling  in  King  John  (Hans)  of  Denmark. 
John  succeeded  Christian  in  1482,  and  commenced  intrigu- 
ing for  the  Swedish  crown.     The  Swedish  nobles  were  anx- 
ious to  have  this  good-natured  monarch  for  ruler.     Lord 
Sten  was  too  sagacious  to  openly  oppose  them,  when  they, 
in  the  so-called  Recess  of  Kalmar  of  1483,  declared  John 
king  of  Sweden,  the  king  promising  the  island  of  Gothland 
to  Sweden,  and  all  old  privileges  to  the  nobles.     By  means 
of  skilful  diplomatic  operations,  Lord  Sten  delayed  matters 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  took  fourteen  years  before  John  II. 
was  king  of  Sweden  in  anything  but  name.     But  the  time 
was  ripe  for  Svante  Sture's  open  conflict  with  Lord  Sten. 
The  council,  the  archbishop  leading,  broke  their  faith  with 
the  regent,  offering  King  John  the  crown.     He  came  with 
an  army  to  Stockholm,  taking  his  position  at  Brunkeberg. 
An  army  of  Dalecarlians  marched  upon  the  capital  at  the 
solicitation  of  Lord  Sten,  who  awaited  them  with  another 
army.     The  operations  took  an  unfavorable  turn  on  account 
of  misapprehended  movements.   Lord  Sten  with  difficulty 
saving  his  life.      King  John  understood  that  a  continued 
struggle  would  lead  to  his  ultimate  defeat  and  made  peace. 
Lord  Sten  retired,  but  with  the  greatest  fiefs  given  to  any 
Swedish  man;  viz.,  the  whole  of  Finland,  with  large  pos- 
sessions besides.      When   the  king  entered  Stockholm,  in 
October,  1497,  it  was  at  the  arm  of  Lord  Sten,  to  whom 
he  said  jestingly:  "Have  you  now  prepared  everything  well 
for  me  at  the  castle.  Lord  Sten ;  the  table  set  with  meat  and 
ale,  so  that  my  guests  may  make  merry?"     Lord  Sten  an- 
swered in  the  same  light  spirit,   pointing  to  the  Swedish 
nobles  who  had  joined  the  royal  retinue:  *'That  these  know 
best  who  stand  there  behind  you.     They  have  it  all  both 


120  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN" 

baked  and  brewed."  Later  the  king  remarked:  **Loid 
Sten,  it  is  a  bad  inheritance  you  have  bequeathed  on  me 
in  Sweden;  the  peasants  whom  God  created  slaves  you  have 
made  into  lords,  and  those  who  shouiCi  have  been  lords  you 
try  to  make  slaves."  At  his  coronation  in  Upsala,  the  king 
bestowed  knighthood  upon  many  Swedish  nobles  (some- 
thing that  had  been  beyond  Lord  Sten's  authority  to  do), 
upon  his  return  to  Denmark  appointing  Lord  Sten  to  take 
the  reins  of  government  with  three  state  councillors  at  his 
side. 

King  John's  reign  in  Sweden  was  of  short  duration. 
He  failed  to  return  the  island  of  Gothland  to  the  Swedish 
crown  and  lost  his  prestige  through  an  unsuccessful  war  in 
Ditmarschen.  Svante  Sture,  who  had  not  been  dealt  with 
according  to  his  expectations,  declared  war  upon  the  king 
and  joined  Lord  Sten,  who  was  in  an  unenviable  position 
and  glad  to  shake  off  the  Union  with  Denmark,  which  he 
did,  in  1501,  when  made  regent  for  the  second  time.  With 
a  peasant  army  siege  was  laid  to  the  castle  of  Stockholm, 
held  by  the  energetic  Queen  Christine,  who  capitulated  after 
a  heroic  struggle.  Three  days  later  King  John  appeared 
with  an  army,  but  returned,  seeing  that  he  came  too  late. 
Lord  Sten  retained  Queen  Christine  at  Vadstena  for  some 
time,  later  escorting  her  to  the  Danish  frontier.  Upon  his 
return  he  was  taken  ill  and  died  suddenly  at  Joenkoeping, 
December  14,  1503.  With  him  the  older  or  original  line 
of  the  Sture  family  became  extinct.  Lord  Sten  was  the 
greatest  ruler  since  Margaret,  and  his  rule,  being  of  a  more 
patriotic  and  democratic  tendency,  was  of  greater  benefit 
to  Sweden  than  hers. 

Svante  Sture  succeeded  Sten.  He  was  of  the  yoimger 
Sture  line,  the  son  of  the  noble  patriot,  Nils  Bosson,  who  in 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  121 

the  time  of  Charles  VIII.,  as  the  friend  of  Engelbrekt  and 
Bishop  Thomas,  had  taken  stand  against  the  archbishop 
and  the  nobles,  backed  by  the  Dalecarlians,  who  adored 
him.  Lord  Svante  was  a  very  quick-tempered  man,  which 
led  him  into  the  conflict  with  Lord  Sten.  Unlike  the  regent 
and  his  own  father,  he  never  had  experienced  what  Danish 
oppression  meant,  which  accounts  for  his  unwise  decision  in 
joining  the  Unionists.  The  war  with  Denmark  lasted  eight 
of  his  nine  years  of  reign,  which  proves  him  an  able  soldier 
and  a  stanch  patriot.  His  position  from  the  start  was  less 
favorable  than  that  of  his  predecessor,  who  could  reign  in 
the  glory  of  his  early  victory  at  Brunkeberg. 

Lord  Svante  had  in  Doctor  Hemming  Gad  a  patriotic 
adviser  of  rare  attainments  and  great  learning.  He  had 
studied  in  Rostock,  was  for  twelve  years  Lord  Sten's  rep- 
resentative in  Italy,  and  later  bishop  of  Linkoeping,  al- 
though never  sanctioned  and  finally  placed  under  ban  by 
the  pope.  Hemming  Gad  was  the  first  democratic  agitator 
of  Sweden,  a  warm  admirer  of  the  Stures,  and  a  good  sol- 
dier. His  statecraft  he  had  evidently  learned  in  Italy  with 
her  traditions  of  MachiaveUi.  His  literary  style  is  very 
characteristic,  the  language  of  a  learned  ecclesiastic  with 
the  oaths  of  a  soldier.  Those  of  his  writings  which  are  still 
extant  prove  a  great  love  for  the  common  people,  a  love 
which  was  returned  by  them.  Having  organized  the  revolt 
gainst  King  John,  he  evinced  great  slyness  and  presence 
of  mind  at  the  death  of  Lord  Sten.  To  preserve  its  secrecy 
until  Svante  was  forewarned  and  in  possession  of  the  castle 
of  Stockholm,  he  had  a  man  dress  in  the  clothes  of  the  de- 
ceased regent  and  continue  the  journey  to  the  capital  with 
Sten's  retinue. 

The  Unionist  party  was  as  ready  as  ever  to  offer  the 

XX  6 


122  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

crown  to  King  John,  their  representatives  agreeing  to  pay 
a  yearly  tribute  until  he  or  his  son  Christian  was  chosen 
king.  This  agreement  was  made  in  1509,  but  it  called  forth 
a  storm  of  indignation  from  the  patriots  and  the  people,  and 
was  never  considered  by  the  government.  Lubeck  opened 
hostilities  against  Denmark  and  was  joined  by  Sweden,  the 
Unionists  recommencing  deUberations  whenever  it  looked  fa- 
vorable for  Danish  interests.  Lord  Svante  made  sure  of  peace 
and  safety  for  Finland  before  taking  up  the  conflict  with  the 
Danes.  On  the  eastern  shore.  Hemming  Gad  led  the  opera- 
tions against  the  town  and  castle  of  Kalmar,  held  by  the 
Danes.  The  town  was  soon  captured,  but  the  castle  not 
before  the  end  of  1510.  Ake  Hansson  (Natt  och  Dag) 
fought  with  great  valor  and  considerable  success  against 
the  Danes  on  the  western  and  southern  frontier,  until  this 
"Tormentor  of  Denmark,"  as  he  was  surnamed,  was  killed 
in  battle  in  1610.  On  the  sea  the  Danes  were  superior,  a 
fleet  under  the  command  of  Otto  Rud  and  Soren  Norrby 
plundering  Abo  in  Finland.  But  when  Lubeck's  fleet 
appeared  the  Danes  were  forced  back.  Peace  was  made, 
but  soon  broken.  Lubeck  sent  a  fleet  to  invade  the  coast 
of  the  Danish  isles;  Hemming  Gad,  with  several  Swedish 
ships,  taking  part  in  the  expedition.  Denmark  did  her  best 
to  crush  Swedish  resistance  by  inducing  Russia  to  break  the 
peace,  the  emperor  to  declare  Sweden  the  arch  enemy  of 
the  German  empire,  and  the  pope  to  place  her  under  ban. 
More  imfortunate  to  Sweden  than  these  intrigues  was 
the  fact  that  King  John  in  his  son  Christian  had  an  able 
warrior  and  a  great  organizer.  Prince  Christian  put  down 
a  revolt  in  Norway  against  Danish  oppression,  entering 
West  Gothland  with  a  superior  army.  The  Unionists 
assembled  to  force  the  regent  to  abdicate,  but  he  firmly 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  133 

lefosed  to  do  so.  A  rebellion  seemed  imminent,  Lord 
Svante  hastening  to  Westeros  to  confer  with  the  people 
of  the  mining  districts.  Shortly  after  the  opening  of  the 
meeting.  Lord  Svante  died  quite  suddenly,  after  a  stroke 
of  paralysis,  in  January,  1612. 

The  council  of  state  selected  Eric  Trolle,  a  learned  but 
unfit  man  of  the  Unionists,  to  succeed  Lord  Svante.  But 
the  popular  opinion  condemned  him,  and  the  council  was 
forced  to  choose  Svante's  son  as  his  successor. 

Sten  Sture  the  Younger  was  barely  nineteen  years  of 
age  at  his  father's  death.  Knighted  when  only  five,  he 
early  distinguished  himself  as  a  warrior,  winning  fame 
for  his  chivalric  spirit  and  noble  character,  and,  like  his 
illustrious  namesakes,  his  father  and  grandfather,  becoming 
the  idol  of  the  people.  And  he  deserved  their  idolatry. 
More  resembling  his  grandfather  in  the  sweetness  of  his 
disposition  than  his  sterner  predecessors,  he  was  as  great 
a  warrior  as  his  father,  to  which  he  joined  the  sagacity 
and  power  of  self-control  characteristic  of  the  elder  Lord 
Sten.  As  a  youth,  he  was  made  regent  of  a  country  in 
war,  distress  and  peril.  He  was  called  away  by  death 
when  only  twenty-seven,  leaving  behind  the  memory  of 
not  one  evil  deed  to  soil  the  glory  of  his  fair  name,  al- 
though continually  placed  in  trying  and  dangerous  posi- 
tions of  strife,  rivalry,  envy  and  rebellion.  He  made  his 
will  respected  by  high  and  low  with  a  temperance  in  spirit 
and  methods  worthy  of  the  highest  admiration  and  the 
devoted  love  of  the  people.  The  young  Lord  Sten  had  a 
tender  heart  for  the  lowly  and  the  suffering,  never  fearing 
to  wring  their  rights  from  the  oppressors,  whosoever  they 
were.  He  took  great  interest  in  the  pursuits  of  peace,  dur- 
ing the  intervals  allowed  by  his  successful  exploits  in  war. 


124  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

In  spite  of  the  plague  and  other  contagious  diseases,  which, 
together  with  the  destruction  of  war,  ravaged  the  country, 
he  left  it  in  a  better  condition  than  he  received  it.  In 
many  ways  more  farseeing  than  his  contemporaries,  his 
name  will  live  on  for  centuries  as  one  of  the  most  be- 
loved in  Swedish  history. 

With  the  younger  Lord  Sten,  other  new  actors  appeared 
upon  the  stage  of  Scandinavian  history.  Christian  II.  suc- 
ceeded his  father  upon  the  throne  of  Denmark  and  Norway. 
In  Sweden,  Archbishop  Jacob  Ulfsson  retired  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gustavus  TroUe,  a  son  of  Lord  Eric.  The 
new  archbishop  was  of  a  hateful  and  jealous  disposition. 
He  resolved  to  avenge  the  treatment  his  father  had  received 
at  the  hands  of  Lord  Sten  and  the  Swedish  people  by  plac- 
ing Christian  on  the  throne.  The  young  regent  made  no 
less  than  four  attempts  to  win  over  this  formidable  enemy, 
but  all  in  vain.  He  opened  up  a  court  at  Stseket,  in  Up- 
land, more  brilliant  than  that  of  Lord  Sten,  and  accepted 
subsidies  from  Denmark.  At  last,  fully  aware  of  the  secret 
deliberations  going  on,  Lord  Sten  surrounded  Stseket  and 
called  a  Riksdag  at  Arboga,  in  1517,  where  it  was  resolved 
that  Christian  should  never  become  king  of  Sweden,  and 
that  the  siege  of  Stseket  should  be  continued.  Christian 
sent  a  little  army  to  support  his  ally,  but  Lord  Sten  met 
it  at  Ladugardsland,  outside  of  Stockholm,  completely  rout- 
ing it.  A  new  Riksdag  was  called  at  Stockholm  before 
which  the  archbishop  appeared  upon  truce.  His  language 
was  haughty  and  disdainful.  He  said  he  was  in  his  full 
right  to  support  King  Christian's  claims  with  mitre  and 
sword,  the  pope  sanctioning  his  policy;  and  to  the  pope 
alone  he  was  responsible.  The  indignant  Riksdag  resolved 
that  the  archbishop  should  be  deprived  of  his  seat,  being 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  126 

guilty  of  high  treason,  and  that  his  castle  should  be  burned. 
The  resolution  was  written  down  and  signed  by  all  the  bish- 
ops, none  daring  to  oppose  the  yeomanry.  Bishop  Brask, 
of  Linkoeping,  managed  to  conceal  in  the  wax  of  his  seal 
a  paper  with  the  words:  *'To  this  I  am  forced  by  neces- 
sity/' The  archbishop  returned  to  defend  Staeket,  but  soon 
had  to  flee  with  his  followers.  It  was  only  by  using  all  his 
authority  that  Lord  Sten  could  save  his  enemy's  life  from 
the  irate  people.  Trolle  was  forced  to  resign  his  seat  and 
was  imprisoned  in  a  convent  at  Westeros,  while  his  castle 
was  torn  down.  Lord  Sten  wanted  to  appoint  a  successor 
to  Trolle,  but  Bishop  Brask  objected  that  the  pope  might 
not  consent  to  his  removal.  To  this  Lord  Sten  uttered  the 
following  manly  words,  hardly  in  touch  with  the  policy  of 
Rome:  "I  think  that  our  most  holy  father,  the  pope,  and 
the  canonic  law  should  not  tolerate  as  the  leaders  of  the 
Church,  and  as  the  precepts  or  mirrors  to  the  people,  men 
who  are  infested  by  open  treason,  in  particular  against  their 
own  country."  The  Church  tried  various  means  to  gain 
a  settled  condition  of  things.  When  Sten  refused  the  royal 
crown  from  its  hand,  he  was  at  last  placed  under  ban. 

The  hostilities  with  Denmark  recommenced.  King 
Christian  appeared  with  a  fleet  and  an  army,  in  June, 
1518,  laying  siege  to  Stockholm.  His  attacks  were  val- 
iantly repulsed,  and  Christian,  fearing  to  be  encircled  by 
his  enemies,  marched  away  in  a  southeasterly  direction, 
taking  a  firm  position  at  Brennkyrka.  A  Swedish  army 
met  him  from  the  south  and  gave  battle  one  of  the 
last  days  of  July,  1518.  It  was  a  fierce  conflict,  ending 
with  a  victory  for  the  Swedes.  The  chief  banner  was  car- 
ried by  the  squire  Gustavus  Ericsson  Vasa,  who  five  years 
later  was  to  become  king  of  Sweden.     Christian  returned 


126  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

to  attack  Stockholm,  once  more  in  vain.  He  was  to  sail 
for  Denmark,  but  was  kept  back  by  storms,  great  suffering 
being  experienced  by  his  men.  Christian  was  forced  to 
open  deliberations,  making  very  high  demands.  But  Lord 
Sten  refused  to  hold  a  meeting,  postponing  it  to  the  follow- 
ing year.  A  few  days  later,  King  Christian  sent  word  that 
he  wanted  the  regent  to  visit  him  in  his  ship  on  important 
affairs.  Lord  Sten,  always  good-natured  and  ready  to 
accept  peace,  thought  that  the  king  had  changed  his  mind 
and  was  ready  to  go.  But  the  burgomaster  and  council 
of  Stockholm  prevailed  upon  him  not  to  go,  sure  that  it 
would  bring  him  into  the  enemy's  hands.  Lord  Sten  took 
their  advice  and  arranged  for  a  meeting  on  land,  sending 
six  Swedish  nobles  as  hostages  to  the  king  at  his  demand. 
Among  these  were  Dr.  Hemming  Gad  and  Gustavus  Erics- 
son Vasa.  For  two  days  Lord  Sten  waited  in  vain  for  the 
king  to  appear.  Then  he  learned,  to  his  dismay  and  indig- 
nation, that  King  Christian  had  sailed  to  Denmark,  taking 
the  hostages  with  him  as  prisoners,  October  4,  1518. 

Christian  collected  all  his  forces  and  resources  to  crush 
Sweden.  The  whole  of  the  following  year  was  spent  in 
preparations.  Sweden  was  placed  under  ban  by  the  pope, 
and  Christian  made  himself  his  representative,  the  one  who 
was  to  fulfil  the  heavenly  punishment.  In  January,  1520, 
a  large  Danish  army  invaded  Smaland  and  West  Gothland. 
Lord  Sten  made  an  appeal  to  the  people  and  gathered  a 
peasant  army,  with  which  he  met  the  superior  force  of  the 
enemy  at  Bogesund,  in  West  Gothland.  The  Swedish 
forces  were  arranged  in  line  on  the  frozen  surface  of  Lake 
Asund.  Lord  Sten  rode  in  front  of  the  line,  encouraging 
his  men,  but  was  seriously  wounded  during  the  very  first 
engagement   and  carried  from   the  field.     After  two  vam 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  127 

attempts,  the  Danes  were  victorious  in  overthrowing  the 
Swedes.  These  gathered  in  the  wooded  hills  of  Tivedeu 
for  a  last  heroic  resistance,  which  was  broken;  the  Danes 
taking  possession  of  the  provinces  to  the  north.  Lord  Sten, 
mortally  wounded,  died  on  the  ice  of  Lake  Mselar  during 
his  journey  to  Stockholm.  Christian  continued  his  march 
on  Stockholm,  the  castle  of  which  was  heroically  defended 
by  Lord  Sten's  consort,  Christine  Gyllenstierna,  who  also 
tried  by  support  and  exhortations  to  encourage  other  strong- 
holds not  yet  surrendered  to  resist  the  Danes.  The  castle 
of  Kalmar  was  defended  by  another  heroic  woman,  Anna 
Bielke.  But  Christian  won,  through  persuasions  and  de- 
liberations, what  he  could  not  take  by  violence.  His  opera- 
tions were  carried  on  by  Dr.  Hemming  Gad,  who,  for  rea- 
sons unknown  to  history,  had  changed  his  old  patriotic 
views  and  become  a  friend  of  Christian.  In  September, 
1520,  Christian  won  Stockholm  by  peaceful  agreement. 
The  4th  of  November  he  was  crowned  by  Trolle,  the  rein- 
stalled archbishop.  At  this  occasion  it  caused  considerable 
surprise  that  only  Danes  and  Germans  were  knighted,  the 
herald  proclaiming  that  the  country  was  won  by  sword,  for 
which  reason  no  Swede  could  be  thus  honored.  This  was 
in  striking  contrast  to  Christian's  proclamation  of  having 
ascended  the  throne  by  right  of  his  descent  from  St.  Eric. 
Worse  things  were  to  follow. 

The  7th  of  November  a  great  number  of  Swedish  nobles 
were  called  to  the  castle  of  Stockholm,  where  they  were 
brought  before  a*  tribunal,  the  king  presiding.  The  arch- 
bishop asked  for  remuneration  for  the  suifferings  caused  him 
during  Lord  Sten's  reign.  A  jury  of  bishops  and  nobles 
convened.  Christine  Gyllenstierna  was  the  first  to  answer 
to  the  accusations,  holding  forth  that  the  Riksdag  of  Ar- 


128  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

boga  was  responsible  for  the  action  taken  against  Trolle 
and  bringing  the  signed  document  in  evidence.  The  king 
answered  by  announcing  that  all  who  signed  were  under  the 
ban  of  the  pope;  Bishop  Brask  was  the  only  one  acquitted, 
producing  his  written  slip  of  reservation  from  imder  his 
seal,  besides  Bishop  Otto  of  Westeros,  who  supported  Trolle 
in  his  claims.  In  the  evening  all  the  accused  were  impris- 
oned and  judgment  passed  on  them  the  following  morning. 
In  the  morning  of  November  8th,  a  solemn  procession 
of  convicts  started  from  the  castle  to  the  grand  square, 
hedged  in  by  soldiers  and  executioners.  The  bishops  Mattias 
of  StrengnsBS  and  Vincentius  of  Skara,  in  their  ecclesiastical 
robes,  came  first,  followed  by  thirteen  noblemen  and  thiriy- 
one  town  councillors  and  burghers  of  Stockholm.  In  the 
square,  a  Danish  councillor  of  state  from  the  porch  of  the 
court-house  asked  the  masses  not  to  be  frightened.  The 
archbishop,  he  said,  had  three  times  on  his  knees  implored 
the  king  that  justice  should  be  done.  Bishop  Vincentius 
replied  with  great  courage  that  the  king  had  committed 
treason  against  the  Swedes  and  called  down  divine  punish- 
ment on  him  for  such  deeds.  Two  of  the  Swedish  nobles 
followed  the  bishop  with  short  addresses,  admonishing  the 
people  not  to  believe  in  false  letters  and  promises  and  to  put 
down  such  tyranny  as  soon  as  within  their  power.  King 
Christian,  who  from  a  window  of  a  house  facing  the  square 
looked  down  on  the  spectacle,  now  gave  a  sign  for  the 
executions  to  commence.  First  the  bishops,  then  the  state 
councillors,  nobles  and  burghers  were  beheaded,  among 
whom  were  two  brothers  of  Christine  Gyllenstiema  and 
the  father  and  brother-in-law  of  Gustavus  Ericsson  Vasa. 
Many  burghers  were  captured  in  the  street,  or  in  their 
homes,  and  brought  in  to  be  executed,  others  being  killed 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  129 

on  the  spot.  Not  less  than  eighty-two  persons  were  that 
day  executed,  the  number  being  increased  during  the  fol- 
lowing days  by  people  killed  in  various  ways.  Olaus  Petri, 
the  reformer,  who  was  an  eyewitness,  in  his  history  gives 
a  graphic  description  of  the  terrible  scenes.  He  adds: 
"Yes,  this  was  a  horrible  and  cruel  murder,  such  as  no 
other  prince  who  carried  a  Christian  name  ever  committed 
before.'*  The  corpses  were  burned,  the  remains  of  Lord 
Sten  and  one  of  his  sons  being  taken  from  their  graves  and 
thrown  into  the  flames.  Christine  Gyllenstierna,  and  the 
mother  and  sister  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  were  with  several 
other  ladies  carried  to  Copenhagen  and  thrown  into  a  miser- 
able dungeon.  The  mass  murder  has  been  called  the  Car- 
nage of  Stockholm,  but  it  was  extended  also  to  Finland — 
where  Dr.  Hemming  Gad  was  executed  at  Raseborg — and 
to  the  provinces.  Christian  marked  his  return  through  the 
Swedish  mainland  to  Copenhagen  by  executions  and  mass 
murder  everywhere ;  six  hundred  are  estimated  to  have  been 
killed  through  his  order  during  his  short  stay  in  Sweden. 
Archbishop  TroUe  had  taken  a  terrible  revenge,  and 
Christian  thought  he  had  crushed  forever  the  stubborn 
Swedish  resistance.  But  through  this  excess  of  cruelty  the 
Union  became  insupportable,  and  the  Swedish  people  re- 
solved to  throw  off  forever  the  connection  with  any  foreign 
ruler.  In  the  woods  of  Dalecarlia  a  man  was  hiding  who 
soon  was  to  step  forward  to  lead  the  work  of  liberation  and 
independence. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Revolution  and  Reformation — Gustavus  Vasa 

GUSTAVUS  ERICSSON  VASA,  the  man  whom 
Providence  had  selected  to  save  his  country  from 
anarchy  and  ruin,  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of 
Unionist  sympathies,  his  great-grandfather  being  Drotsete 
Krister  Nilsson  Vasa.  But  the  Vasa  family  had  joined 
the  cause  of  the  patriots  during  the  reigns  of  the  Stures, 
simultaneously  losing  some  of  its  earlier  importance.  The 
Vasas  prided  themselves  on  being  the  descendants  of  St. 
Eric  and  his  line,  and  of  St.  Birgitta  and  the  Folkimgs. 
Its  coat-of-arms  consisted  of  a  simple  vase,  or  bundle  of 
sticks.  Gustavus  Vasa  was  born  May  12,  1496,  at  Lind- 
holmen  in  Upland,  at  the  mansion  of  his  parents,  Eric 
Johansson  Vasa,  state  councillor,  and  Cecilia  of  Eka,  a 
sister  of  Christine  Gyllenstiema.  His  earliest  years  were 
spent  with  his  mother  at  Rydboholm,  another  estate  of  his 
father's,  beautifully  situated  on  an  arm  of  the  Baltic,  only 
ten  miles  north  of  Stockholm.  "When  a  mere  boy  he  was 
sent  to  the  court  of  his  granduncle,  Sten  Sture  the  Elder, 
who  was  childless.  King  John  of  Denmark  noticed  the 
bright  little  boy  during  a  visit  paid  to  Lord  Sten.  Young 
Gustavus  took  the  command  of  all  the  other  children  at 
play  and  appeared  to  be  a  bom  leader.     The  king  called  the 

boy  to  him  and  asked  him  what  his  name  was.     Gustavus 
(130) 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  131 

answered  frankly.  King  John  smilingly  placed  his  hand 
on  the  boy's  head,  saying:  ** Certainly  thou  shalt  become 
a  man  in  thy  day  if  preserved  in  life.*'  The  king  inti- 
mated that  he  wanted  to  take  him  along  to  Copenhagen  to 
supervise  his  education.  But  Lord  Sten,  who  did  not  like 
this  idea,  hurriedly  had  Gustavus  sent  away,  so  that  he 
could  tell  the  king  upon  a  second  inquiry  that  the  boy  had 
returned  to  his  parents.  The  young  Gustavus  was  de- 
scribed as  "attractive  and  welcome  with  everybody." 
Gustavus  was  sent  to  Upsala  to  study  at  the  age  of  thir- 
teen. The  University  of  Upsala  was  at  that  period  in  a 
state  of  stagnation.  The  first  teacher  who  came  in  contact 
with  Gustavus  was  a  Dane  named  Master  Ivar.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Prose  Chronicle,  he  was  a  man  who  "was  mean 
to  everybody  and  who  gave  Gustavo  drubbings."  It  seems 
that  the  patriotic  spirit  early  woke  in  the  breast  of  this 
youth,  who  already  in  these  days  foreshadowed  his  own 
mission  in  the  following  words:  "I  will  betake  myself  to 
Dalecarlia,  rouse  the  Dalecarlians  and  batter  the  nose  of  the 
Jute."  When  eighteen  years  of  age,  he  was  accepted  as  a 
squire  at  the  court  of  Sten  Sture  the  Younger,  and  Chris- 
tine Gyllenstiema,  his  own  aunt.  He  followed  the  younger 
Lord  Sten  in  all  his  expeditions  of  war,  taking  part  in  the 
siege  of  Sta^ket  and  a  battle  of  Dufnses,  and  carrying 
the  banner  of  state  at  Brennkyrka. 

A  second  time  in  his  life  it  came  to  pass  that  Gustavus 
Vasa  was  considered  a  person  whom  the  Danish  king  was 
desirious  of  carrying  away.  This  time  the  king  was  Chris- 
tian II.,  who  gained  his  object  by  treachery  and  violence. 
Gustavus  was  one  of  the  Swedish  hostages  who  were  offered 
to  King  Christian  and  by  him  carried  away  to  Denmark. 

Gustavus  was  handed  over  to  Eric  Baner,  a  relative  of 


132  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

his,  who  held  in  fief  the  castle  of  Kalloe  in  Jutland.  The 
latter  was  placed  under  a  heavy  fine  in  case  he  allowed  his 
prisoner  to  escape.  Gustavus  received  a  kind  and  generous 
treatment.  He  ate  at  the  table  of  the  lord  and  was  allowed 
to  wander  at  liberty  in  the  close  neighborhood  of  the  castle. 
But  the  danger  that  menaced  his  country  never  left  him 
in  peace.  He  heard  repeatedly  of  the  great  preparations 
made  by  Christian  II.  to  crush  the  resistance  of  Sweden, 
and  of  the  acts  of  violence  to  be  perpetrated.  Gustavus 
remained  at  Kalloe  for  a  year,  when  he  resolved  to  flee 
from  a  captivity  which  had  become  insupportable.  One 
morning  at  sunrise,  Gustavus  Vasa  put  on  the  garb  of  a 
peasant  and  disappeared  from  the  castle.  He  made  good 
speed,  reaching  a  seaport  and  escaping  to  Lubeck  with  a 
merchant  vessel.  In  this  friendly  Hanseatic  centre  Gus- 
tavus expected  armed  support.  Such  was  not  granted,  but 
he  was  shielded  against  Danish  pursuit.  Eric  Baner  ar- 
rived, having  followed  up  his  tracks,  but  his  demands  to 
have  Gustavus  surrendered  were  refused.  After  eight 
months  of  delay  in  Lubeck,  Gustavus  obtained  leave  and 
arrived  in  Sweden  on  board  a  German  ship.  He  landed 
at  Stensoe,  a  promontory  outside  of  the  town  of  Kalmar, 
while  Christian  II.  was  laying  siege  to  Stockholm.  Gus- 
tavus was  resolved  to  do  his  utmost  to  rouse  the  people 
to  active  resistance  against  the  invaders.  The  castle  of 
Kalmar,  next  to  that  of  Stockholm  the  firmest  stronghold 
of  Sweden,  was  in  charge  of  Anna  Bielke,  the  widow  of 
the  last  commander.  Gustavus  strengthened  the  courage 
of  the  inhabitants  of  town  and  castle,  but  finding  it  impos- 
sible to  accomplish  anything  for  the  defence  himself,  and 
unsuccessful  in  his  attempts  to  bring  the  hired  German 
troops  up  to  a  point  of  enthusiasm  for  the  Swedish  cause, 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  133 

he  left  Xalmar  and  continued  his  way  through  Smaland. 
But  the  population  of  this  province  had  no  patience  to  listen 
to  his  appeals  for  a  revolt.  The  peasants  answered  him 
that  if  they  remained  faithful  to  the  Danish  king  they  were 
never  to  be  in  want  of  herring  and  salt.  Some  of  them  in 
their  indignation  sent  arrows  flying  after  the  young  patriot. 
In  September  he  reached  the  Tema  estate  in  Scederman- 
land,  where  his  sister  and  her  husband,  Joachim  Brahe, 
resided.  Lord  Joachim  had  just  received  an  invitation 
to  be  present  at  the  coronation  of  Eling  Christian  in  Stock- 
holm. The  attempts  made  by  Gustavus  to  persuade  the 
couple  to  abandon  their  intended  journey  to  Stockholm  were 
futile.  Reaching  his  paternal  estate  of  RsefsnsBs  in  Soeder- 
manland,  he  remained  there  in  concealment  for  some  time. 
He  visited  the  old  archbishop  Jacob  Ulfsson,  who,  after  his 
retirement,  hved  in  the  neighboring  monastery  of  Marie- 
fred.  The  old  prelate  tried  his  best  to  persuade  him  to  seek 
mercy  and  grace  of  King  Christian,  but  the  resolution  of 
the  young  squire  to  free  his  country  was  only  strengthened 
into  an  iron-cast  determination.  One  of  the  servants  who 
had  foUowed  Lord  Joachim  to  the  capital  managed  to  make 
a  safe  return  to  tell  Gustavus  the  terrible  news  of  the  Car- 
nage of  Stockholm.  He  was  also  told  that  a  high  price  had 
been  placed  on  his  own  head. 

Gustavus  at  once  prepared  for  flight.  Accompanied  by 
a  single  servant  he  secretly  left  RsBfsnses  one  day  toward 
the  end  of  November,  travelling  on  horseback  northward  to 
Dalecarlia.  He  arrived  at  Kopparberg  in  Dalecarlia,  where 
he  had  his  hair  close  cropped  and  put  on  peasant's  clothes. 
Putting  an  axe  over  his  shoulder,  he  went  about  looking  for 
employment.  The  first  man  whom  he  tried  was  Andrew 
Persson,  a  wealthy  mine  owner  at  Rankhytta.     Gustavus 


134  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

found  employment  with  him,  taking  part  in  the  threshing. 
But  the  other  servants  soon  detected  that  the  new  man  had 
a  carriage  and  habits  different  from  their  own,  and  they 
commenced  to  watch  him  closely.  They  noticed  that  he 
was  not  accustomed  to  the  work,  and  one  of  the  servant 
girls  saw  a  collar  of  silk  above  the  coarse  blouse.  Andrew 
Persson  called  before  him  the  suspect,  and  was  highly  sur- 
prised when  recognizing  in  him  a  comrade  from  the  time 
of  his  student  days  at  Upsala.  He  was  favorably  disposed, 
but  was  afraid  of  sheltering  Gustavus,  advising  him  to  flee 
to  the  less  thickly  settled  parts  of  the  province,  and  to 
change  often  from  one  place  to  another.  Gustavus  con- 
tinued his  way  in  a  westerly  direction,  following  the  shore 
of  a  lake  named  Runn,  and  arrived  at  OrnsBS  the  following 
day.  He  knew  he  had  an  old  comrade  and  friend  in  the 
owner  of  the  place.  This  man,  Arendt  Persson,  received 
him  in  the  most  hospitable  manner,  but  was  in  his  heart 
desirous  of  obtaining  the  price  placed  upon  the  head  of  the 
young  squire.  Gustavus  went  to  bed  in  the  attic,  not  sus- 
pecting treachery.  The  host  himself  accompanied  him  to 
his  resting  place,  according  to  the  mediaeval  custom.  This 
done,  Arendt  travelled  in  great  haste  to  one  of  his  neigh- 
bors, the  much-respected  Mons  Nilsson  of  Aspeboda. 
Arendt  asked  him  to  assist  in  capturing  Gustavus  Vasa; 
but  Mons  Nilsson  flatly  refused,  taking  no  pains  to  hide 
his  indignation.  Arendt  left  and  went  past  his  own  home 
to  Ssetra,  which  was  the  residence  of  the  Danish  bailiff. 
He  started  for  Omses  the  following  morning,  accompanied 
by  the  baihff  and  twenty  men  ready  to  capture  the  fugitive. 
But  Arendt's  wife.  Lady  Barbro  Stigsdotter  (Swinhuf wud), 
had  not  been  inactive.  Her  suspicion  was  aroused  when  she 
noticed  her  husband  travelling  back  and  forth  to  disappear 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  135 

fn  the  direction  where  the  bailiff  resided.  She  divined  that 
the  safety  of  her  guest  was  threatened  and  decided  to  take 
action.  Lady  Barbro  went  to  the  attic,  roused  her  sleeping 
guest  and  told  him  of  the  impending  danger.  Gustavus  let 
himself  down  to  the  ground  by  means  of  towels  fastened  to 
the  window-sill,  assisted  by  Lady  Barbro,  who  had  a  horse 
and  sleigh  in  readiness  for  him,  in  charge  of  a  faithful 
servant.  He  reached  the  residence  of  John,  the  priest  of 
Svaerdsjoe.  Arendt  was  enraged  when  he  found  that  Gus- 
tavus had  made  his  escape.  It  is  said  that  he  from  that 
day  refused  to  ever  see  Lady  Barbro  again. 

The  priest  of  Svserdsjoe  held  Gustavus  in  concealment 
for  three  days,  but  advised  him  to  seek  a  more  secure  hid- 
ing place.  He  sent  Gustavus  to  Swan  Elfsson,  a  hunter  to 
the  king,  who  dwelt  in  Isala,  a  short  distance  from  the 
church  of  Svserdsjoe.  Gustavus  had  hardly  reached  this 
place  before  the  men  sent  after  him  by  the  bailiff  arrived. 
Gustavus  stood  by  the  oven  warming  himself  after  the  ride. 
The  wife  of  Swan  Elfsson  was  busy  baking  bread.  The 
men  entered,  asking  if  any  stranger  had  been  noticed  in  the 
neighborhood.  The  woman  of  the  house  saved  the  situation 
by  resolutely  dealing  a  blow  with  the  bread  spade  to  Gus- 
tavus, who  was  turning  his  back  to  her.  In  an  irritated 
voice  she  said:  **Why  dost  thou  stand  here  gaping  at  the 
strangers?  Hast  thou  never  seen  people  before?  Get  thee 
at  once  out  to  the  barn  and  do  some  threshing."  The  men 
did  not  suspect  in  the  snubbed  servant  the  noble  fugitive  for 
whom  they  were  looking.  But  Swan  Elfsson  was  not  sure 
of  the  safety  of  his  guest  if  he  remained  in  Isala.  So  he 
concealed  Gustavus  in  a  load  of  hay  and  left  his  house  with 
the  great  unsettled  districts  as  his  destination.  He  met 
some  Danish  spies  on  the  way.     These  suspected  the  peas- 


186  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

ant  and  pierced  the  load  of  hay  with  their  lances  repeatedly. 
Gustavus  was  wounded  in  the  leg,  but  kept  his  breath  and 
lay  perfectly  still.  The  spies  were  satisfied  that  everything 
was  right  and  told  Swan  Elfsson  to  move  on.  But  the 
peasant  noticed  that  blood  was  dripping  from  his  load,  leav- 
ing scarlet  tracks  on  the  snow.  He  quickly  drew  his  knife 
and  cut  his  horse  a  deep  wound  in  one  foot.  After  a  while 
the  spies  noticed  the  bloody  tracks.  They  returned  and 
commanded  Swan  Elfsson  to  halt,  inquiring  about  the 
blood.  Swan  Elfsson  pointed  to  the  injured  foot  of  his 
horee  and  succeeded  in  making  them  believe  that  the  horse 
had  met  with  an  accident. 

Swan  Elfsson  left  Gustavus  at  the  village  of  Marnaes, 
situated  in  the  Finn  woods,  where  he  was  received  by  other 
hunters.  These  escorted  the  noble  outlaw  to  a  place  further 
away  in  the  woods,  where  he  for  three  days  remained  in 
concealment  under  a  big  fallen  fir  tree.  The  peasants 
in  the  neighborhood  brought  food  to  him.  The  still  hunt 
seemed  to  be  at  an  end,  and  so  Gustavus  risked  a  visit  to 
the  church  of  Rettvik,  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake 
Siljan.  He  spoke  to  the  yeomanry  collected  around  the 
church  after  divine  service,  reminding  them  of  the  stanch 
patriotism  and  manliness  of  their  ancestors,  and  imploring 
them  to  save  their  country  from  destruction.  The  yeomen 
of  .Rettvik  gave  a  satisfactory  answer,  telling  him  that  they 
were  ready  to  resist  the  Danes.  But  as  they  had  not  heard 
the  opinion  of  the  people  of  the  other  parishes,  there  was 
nothing  to  be  done  for  the  moment. 

Gustavus  continued  his  way  to  Mora,  one  of  the  most 
densely  populated  parishes  of  Dalecarlia  and  situated  on  the 
northern  shore  of  Lake  Siljan.  The  priest  of  the  parish 
was  afraid  to  hide  the  outlaw,  but  confided  him  to  a  peas- 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  137 

azit»  Tomte  Mats,  in  the  village  of  Utmeland.  Gustavus 
remained  for  several  days  concealed  in  a  vaulted  cellar, 
which  "was  reached  only  through  a  hole  in  the  floor  of  the 
cottage  above.  One  day  the  baiHff 's  men  entered  to  search 
for  Gustavus.  The  woman  of  the  house  was  busy  brewing 
the  Christmas  ale.  She  saved  Gustavus  by  quickly  placing 
a  big  barrel  over  the  hinged  door,  which  covered  the  open- 
ing to  the  cellar.  One  of  the  holidays  during  Christmas 
Gustavus  addressed  the  peasants  of  Mora  when  coming 
from  church.  He  stood  on  a  small  hill  near  the  church- 
yard. The  noonday  sun  was  shining  brightly  over  the 
snowy  landscape  and  a  fresh  northerly  wind  was  blowing. 
Gustavus  spoke  in  a  loud  voice  and  with  great  eloquence. 
He  asked  the  men  to  reflect  on  what  kind  of  governmenfc 
foreigners  always  had  given  Sweden,  and  to  remember  what 
they  had  themselves  suffered  and  risked  for  the  liberty  of 
their  country.  He  thought  that  the  memory  had  not  died 
either  of  the  deeds  of  violence  perpetrated  by  Joesse  Erics- 
son or  of  the  deeds  of  heroism  done  by  Engelbrekt  Engel- 
brektsson.  He  then  told  them  of  the  treacherous  villany 
of  King  Christian  and  of  the  Carnage  of  Stockholm.  "My 
own  father,"  he  said,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  *' rather  wished 
to  die  with  his  brethren,  the  honest  lords,  in  the  name  of 
God,  than  to  be  spared  and  live  in  dishonor  after  them.'* 
If  the  Dalecarhans  wanted  to  save  Sweden  from  thraldom, 
he  was  ready  to  offer  himself  as  their  leader  in  the  name  of 
the  Almighty.  The  speech  of  Gustavus  made  a  deep  im- 
pression upon  the  men  of  Mora,  and  some  of  them  were 
anxious  to  rise  at  once.  The  majority  ruled,  deciding  that 
no  action  should  be  taken  before  the  other  parishes  of  Dale- 
carlia  had  been  heard  from.  They  advised  Gustavus  to 
seek  a  safer  hiding-place  further  up  in  the  woods.     Gus- 


188  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

tavus  left  Mora  utterly  discouraged,  seeking  the  paths  that 
led  along  the  Dal  River  into  desert  wilds. 

At  New  Year  of  1521  Lars  Olsson,  a  soldier  who  had 
done  good  service  in  the  times  of  the  Stures,  arrived  at 
Mora,  bringing  particulars  of  the  doings  of  King  Christian. 
He  told  the  peasants  that  the  king  had  ordered  gallows  to 
be  erected  at  every  sheriff's  residence  to  mark  the  way  of 
his  Eriksgata.  The  peasants  were  touched  to  the  quick  and 
regretted  having  sent  away  the  young  nobleman.  Lars 
Olsson  advised  them  to  call  him  back.  Two  expert  ski 
runners  were  sent  after  Gustavus  Ericsson,  and  after  a 
ride  of  a  night  and  a  day  through  the  woods,  they  overtook 
him  close  by  the  Norwegian  frontier,  which  he  was  ready 
to  cross  in  despair. 

Gustavus  returned  to  Mora  and  was  made  the  leader 
of  the  peasants  in  that  locality.  With  these  men  he  started 
his  work  of  liberation,  which  was  the  commencement  of  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  revolutions  that  the  world  ever 
saw.  In  the  beginning  of  February,  1521,  Gustavus 
marched  southward  with  a  few  hundred  men.  At  Falun 
he  captured  the  bailiff  of  the  mines,  confiscating  the  royal 
taxes.  Returning  to  the  starting  point,  he  left  it  again, 
with  an  army  of  1,500  men.  Entering  Norrland,  where 
he  was  joined  by  the  peasants  of  Gestrikland,  and  the 
burghers  of  Gefle,  while  the  people  of  Helsingland  asked 
for  time  to  consider  the  matter,  he  learned  upon  his  return 
how  one  of  his  commanders,  Peder  Swensson,  had  won  a 
glorious  victory  over  a  Danish  army  6,000  strong  at  the 
ferry  of  Brunnba&ck,  by  the  Dal  River.  Gustavus  began 
training  his  troops,  enforcing  severe  discipline  and  provid- 
ing them  with  better  arrows  and  longer  lances.  He  de- 
clared war  upon  Christian  in  a  formal  way  and  marched 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  139 

on  Westeros,  where  the  Danish  troops  had  centred.  The 
town  and  castle  were  captured  in  spite  of  a  force  of  superior 
Danish  cavalry. 

Gustavus  shifted  his  army  into  divisions  which  marched 
in  various  directions  to  capture  the  castles  of  surrounding 
provinces.  The  people  of  Upland  reinforced  the  Dalecarli- 
ans,  who  were  sent  home  to  tend  to  their  sowing.  The 
Upland  forces  captured  the  archbishop's  seat  during  his  ab- 
sence, and  were  joined  by  Gustavus  at  Upsala,  who  made  an 
exceedingly  severe  speech  to  the  ecclesiastics,  asking  them 
to  decide  their  nationality,  whether  they  were  Swedes  or 
not.  They  asked  permission  to  consult  Archbishop  TroUe, 
which  was  granted.  *'I  will  bring  the  reply  myself,"  said 
TroUe,  starting  from  Stockholm  with  a  splendid  body  of 
German  troops.  Gustavus  was  near  being  taken  by  sur- 
prise, but  gathering  troops  he  fought  the  archbishop,  whose 
force  met  with  a  crushing  defeat,  and  he  escaped  with 
difficulty  to  Stockholm. 

At  midsummer,  1521,  Gustavus  arrived  at  Brunkeberg, 
laying  siege  to  Stockholm.  The  capital  was  strongly  forti- 
fied, and  Norrby  with  a  Danish  fleet  supported  and  relieved 
it.  Twice  the  Danes  routed  the  Swedish  troops  with  the 
intermission  of  one  year,  but  Gustavus  provided  reinforce- 
ments. He  travelled  through  the  country,  visiting  the 
forces  who  laid  siege  to  the  various  Danish  strongholds,  these 
surrendering  one  by  one.  It  was  not  a  chain  of  glorious 
exploits,  this  work  which  Gustavus  carried  to  a  successful 
end,  but  one  of  infinite  patience  and  sagacity,  saddened  by 
the  news  that  the  revengeful  Christian  had  ended  the  lives 
of  his  captive  mother  and  sister  in  the  miserable  Danish 
dungeon.  Bishop  Brask  was  scared  into  submission,  turn- 
ing his  castle  Stegeborg  and  part  of  his  troops  over  to  Gus- 


140  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

tavus,  who  at  a  Riksdag  at  Vadstena  was  elected  regent 
in  August,  1521. 

Gustavus  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Lubeck,  and 
it  sent  a  fleet  to  Stockholm,  thus  encircling  it  also  from  the 
sea.  Norrby  left  with  his  ships  and  was  nearly  caught  in 
the  ice  in  the  following  spring.  In  Denmark,  Christian's 
reign  came  to  an  end.  With  his  usual  violence  he  attacked 
the  nobles  and  the  ecclesiastics  in  order  to  better  the  con- 
ditions of  the  peasants,  for  whom  he  had  a  tender  sympathy. 
In  so  doing,  he  brought  the  nobles  to  open  revolt  against 
his  rule.  He  left  his  throne  in  April,  1523.  Now  Gustavus 
found  the  opportune  moment  to  accept  the  Swedish  crown 
offered  him.  He  called  a  Riksdag  at  Strengnaes,  in  June, 
1523,  where  Gustavus  was  chosen  king  of  Sweden  "by  the 
councillors  of  state  with  the  consent  of  the  common  people." 
At  this  occasion  a  tax  was  agreed  on  to  pay  the  German 
troops  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Stockholm,  and  to  Lubeck 
for  its  timely  support.  In  that  very  month  Stockholm  sur- 
rendered, and  Gustavus  held  his  proud  entry  into  the  capital 
on  the  eve  of  Midsummer  day. 

The  position  of  the  king  was  a  most  difficult  one.  The 
crown  was  ruined  through  the  previous  state  of  anarchy 
and  the  expense  of  war.  The  Church  was  in  undisturbed 
possession  of  its  wealth,  but  not  willing  to  yield  any  of  its 
power  or  income.  Christian  was  preparing  a  plan  by  which 
to  recapture  his  lost  crowns.  Norrby,  who  had  aspirations 
of  becoming  Christian's  regent  in  Sweden,  tried  to  persuade 
Christine  Gyllenstiema,  lately  set  free  from  her  prison,  to 
marry  him  in  order  to  obtain  the  prestige  of  the  Stures. 
The  common  people,  whom  Gustavus  so  recently  used  to 
free  the  country,  grew  restive  and  rebellious  when  he  could 
not  at  once  grant  them  guarantees  of  comfort  and  prosperity 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  141 

in  return.  In  a  marvellous  manner  Gustavus  understood 
how  to  face  the  situation  and  how  to  use  to  the  utmost 
the  resources  within  reach. 

When  the  outlawed  youth  of  twenty-four  spoke  of  revolt 
to  the  peasants  at  Mora,  Martin  Luther  was  burning  the 
ban  placed  on  him  by  the  pope.  There  were  several  warm 
friends  of  Luther  in  Sweden,  principally  Olaus  Petri,  him- 
self a  pupil  and  friend  of  the  German  reformer,  his  brother, 
Lauren  tins  Petri,  and  Laurentius  Andrese.  Olaus  was  a 
soul  of  fire  and  enthusiasm.  He  was  lacking  in  self-con- 
trol, but  possessed  a  power  which  if  not  restrained  would 
have  led  him  and  his  work  of  reform  further  than  the  goal 
set  by  Luther.  The  two  Laurentii  were,  like  him,  men  of 
learning  and,  in  addition,  of  greater  sagacity.  The  king 
took  interest  in  these  men.  He  was  contemplating  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  power,  and  they  were  to  prepare 
the  soil  by  freeing  the  people  from  undue  respect  for  the 
Roman  Church  and  its  worldly  power.  Laurentius  Andreae 
Was  made  the  king's  chancellor,  and  Olaus  Petri  secretary 
to  the  town  council  of  Stockholm,  later  pastor  of  the  Cathe- 
dral Church.  Olaus  preached  in  the  Stockholm  Cathedral 
fiery  sermons  against  Rome  and  the  pope,  responded  to 
sometimes  by  irate  monks,  sometimes  by  various  projec- 
tiles from  the  audience.  Gustavus  took  pains  to  fill  the 
vacancies  of  the  Church,  which  were  many,  by  appointing 
able  men.  But  he  made  two  serious  mistakes  in  making 
Master  Knut,  dean  of  Westeros,  archbishop,  and  Peder 
Sunnanvseder,  formerly  secretary  to  Svante  Sture,  bishop 
of  Westeros.  He  came  in  possession  of  a  correspondence, 
which  proved  that  Bishop  Peder  tried  to  bring  the  Dale- 
carlians  to  revolt,  and  when  accusing  him  and  finding  Mas- 
ter Knut  on  the  side  of  the  defence,  Gustavus  deprived 


143  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

them  of  their  new  dignities.  The  king  commanded  that 
a  new  bishop  should  be  appointed  and  himself  selected 
Johannes  Magni  as  archbishop.  This  prelate,  a  very 
learned  man,  was  the  representative  of  Sten  Sture  in 
Borne,  returning  to  his  native  land  as  a  papal  legate. 
Gustavus  had  a  rupture  with  him  when,  according  to  his 
instructions,  he  demanded  that  TroUe  should  be  reinstated 
as  archbishop.  Archbishop  Johannes  was  lacking  in  moral 
courage;  brushed  aside  by  the  tide  of  Reformation,  he  re- 
tired to  Rome,  where  he  died  after  writing  the  history  of 
Sweden  in  Latin,  Historia  de  Oentihus  Septentrionalibtis. 
Master  Knut  and  Peder  Sunnanvasder  turned  their  steps  to 
Dalecarlia,  fanning  the  brewing  malcontent  and  opening 
connections  with  Norrby,  who  styled  himself  the  betrothed 
of  Christine  Gyllenstierna  and  made  ready  to  attack  Gus- 
tavus from  the  sea.  Berndt  von  Melen,  a  German  com- 
mander, in  whom  Gustavus  placed  much  confidence,  was 
to  chase  Norrby  away  from  his  stronghold,  the  island  of 
Gothland,  but  turned  a  traitor,  joining  Norrby  instead,  in 
1524.  Gustavus  called  a  Riksdag  at  Westeros,  in  1525, 
resolved  to  use  his  diplomacy  to  the  utmost.  Upon  receiv- 
ing a  letter  from  the  Dalecarlians,  in  which  they  stoutly 
swore  off  their  allegiance  to  him  on  account  of  heavy  taxes, 
foreign  influence  and  disregard  for  the  Church,  the  king 
offered  to  abdicate.  The  representatives  at  the  Riksdag 
persuaded  him  to  remain,  whereupon  the  king  sent  the  Dale- 
carlians a  sagacious  letter,  promising  to  improve  the  state  of 
things  as  much  as  possible,  but  pointing  out  the  two  prelates 
as  traitors  in  conspiracy  with  the  Danes.  The  Dalecarlians 
were  pacified,  Knut  and  Peder  finding  it  safest  to  leave  for 
Norway.  In  the  following  year  the  king  met  the  revolting 
peasants  of   Upland  at  Old   Upsala,  where  he  in  a  fiery 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  143 

speech  unfolded  his  policy  toward  the  Church.  The  peas- 
ants resented;  they  wanted  to  keep  their  monks  and  their 
masses.  The  king  commanded  one  of  his  followers  to  make 
a  speech  in  Latin,  the  peasants  shouting  that  they  did  not 
understand.  **Why  do  you,  then,  love  so  dearly  your  Latin 
mass?"  the  king  asked  them  smiling.  A  few  days  later 
Gustavus  made  a  crushing  speech  against  lazy  and  worth- 
less ecclesiastics  before  the  chapter  of  Upsala.  The  arch- 
bishop was  sent  away  on  diplomatic  errands  to  Poland  and 
Russia  never  to  return.  After  his  departure  Bishop  Brask 
became  the  chief  representative  of  papal  interests.  He  was 
patriotic,  but  never  yielded  an  inch  of  the  worldly  power  of 
the  Church  except  to  force,  opposing  the  Reformation  with 
his  whole  strength. 

The  kiag  followed  up  his  policy  by  demanding  for  the 
crown  two-thirds  of  the  ecclesiastic  tithe  and  by  placing 
the  ecclesiastics  under  the  duties  of  russtienst,  in  1526. 
The  ex-prelates,  Knut  and  Peder,  were,  upon  the  king's 
request  of  an  extradition,  given  up  and  sentenced  to  death 
for  high  treason.  The  king  arranged  for  their  triumphal 
entry  of  mockery  into  Stockholm  in  a  most  humiliating 
fashion,  for  which  he  has  been  criticised ;  also  for  the  con- 
summate manner  in  which  the  judges  were  appointed  and 
judgment  passed.  But  he  set  an  example  of  warning  to 
obnoxious  and  intriguing  prelates  that  was  appreciated  by 
his  contemporaries. 

Gustavus  gained  the  triumph  of  his  policy  by  the  famous 
Riksdag  of  Westeros  in  1527.  It  was  nothing  else  than  a 
coup  d'etat,  a  revolution,  which,  with  the  establishment 
of  the  Reformation,  gave  his  throne  solidity  and  resources. 
The  Diet  was  called  under  the  pretext  of  taking  measures 
against  a  new  revolt  in  Dalecarlia  and  for  the  regulation  of 


144  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

dogmatic  questions.  There  were  present  sixteen  state  coun- 
cillors, four  bishops,  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  knights 
and  nobles,  one  hundred  and  five  peasants,  besides  various 
priests,  burghers  and  miners,  but  no  representatives  from 
Finland  or  Dalecarlia.  In  the  great  hall  of  the  monastery 
the  meeting  was  held,  opening  with  a  written  address  by 
the  king,  read  by  his  chancellor,  in  which  the  situation 
of  the  country  was  set  forth.  The  king  refused  to  continue 
at  the  government,  asking  to  be  remunerated  for  personal 
losses  and  expense,  and  given  a  fief  like  any  ordinary 
baihff  responsible  to  the  crown.  Only  if  fundamental  re- 
forms were  made  would  he  remain,  not  being  able  otherwise 
to  cover  the  inevitable  deficit  of  the  treasury.  Bishop  Brask 
responded  with  the  statement  that  he  for  his  part  was  in 
duty  boimd  to  the  king,  but  that  Rome  and  its  demands 
must,  in  the  first  place,  be  obeyed ;  showing  by  his  remarks 
that  he  understood  that  the  question  was  one  of  reducing 
the  ecclesiastical  power.  The  king  rose  and  said  in  a  burst 
of  passion:  "We  have  no  further  desire,  then,  to  be  your 
king.  Yerily,  we  had  counted  on  quite  another  treatment 
at  your  hands.  "We  now  no  longer  wonder  at  the  perver- 
sity of  the  people,  since  they  have  such  advisers.  Have 
they  no  rain,  they  blame  us  for  it.  Have  they  no  sun, 
likewise.  For  dearth,  hunger  and  plague  we  are  respon- 
sible, as  if  we  were  not  a  man,  but  God.  Yea,  though  we 
labor  for  you  with  our  utmost  power,  both  in  spiritTial  and 
in  temporal  affairs,  you  would  gladly  see  the  axe  upon  our 
neck,  but  no  one  dares  to  grasp  the  handle.  Monks  and 
priests  and  all  the  creatures  of  the  pope  are  to  be  placed 
above  us,  though  we  have  little  need  of  them.  In  a  word, 
you  all  would  lord  it  over  us.  Who  under  such  circum- 
stances would  desire  to  govern  you?    Not  the  worst  wretch 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  145 

in  hell  would  wish  the  post,  far  less  any  man.  Therefore 
we,  too,  refuse  to  be  your  king.  We  cast  the  honor  from 
us,  and  leave  you  free  to  choose  him  whom  you  will.  But 
be  so  kind  as  to  let  us  leave  the  land.  Pay  us  for  our 
property  in  the  kingdom,  and  return  to  us  what  we  have 
expended  in  your  service.  Then  we  declare  to  you  that 
we  will  withdraw  never  to  return."  With  tears  of  anger 
and  emotion  the  king  left  the  hall,  leaving  the  assembly 
in  consternation. 

After  four  days  of  pandemonium  and  deadlock,  the  rep- 
resentatives decided  to  give  in  and  ask  forgiveness  of  the 
king,  who  long  disregarded  the  appeals  made  for  his  return. 
When  re-entering  he  was  greeted  by  commotion  and  the 
humblest  demonstrations  of  respect  and  repentance.  The 
next  day.  Midsummer  day,  votes  were  taken  upon  his  prop- 
ositions, each  Estate  of  representatives  sending  up  their  vote 
with  a  written  construction  of  the  propositions.  These  were 
then  revised  by  the  state  councillors  in  their  final  form, 
called  "Westeros  Kecess,"  with  amendments  called  **West- 
eros  Ordinantia."  The  startling  revolutionary  stipulations 
of  the  ** Recess"  were  chiefly  these:  Authority  for  the  king 
(1)  to  take  in  possession  the  castles  and  forts  of  the  bishops, 
whose  retinues  he  was  to  fix  as  to  numbers ;  (2)  to  dispose 
of  the  superfluous  income  of  the  clergy  and  to  superintend 
the  administration  of  the  monasteries;  authority  for  the 
nobility  to  resume  title  to  all  their  property  which  had 
come  in  the  possession  of  the  Church  since  1454;  author- 
ity to  have  the  Gospel  preached  all  over  the  country  in 
undefiled  purity.  Among  the  "Ordinantia"  the  most  im- 
portant were:  (1)  Vacancies  in  the  parish  churches  were 
to  be  filled  by  the  bishop  under  the  supervision  and  right 
of  suspension  of  the  king;    (2)  the  king  was  to  fix  the 

XX  7 


14G  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

amount  of  revenue  due  the  bishops,  chapters  and  clerks, 
and  be  entitled  to  use  the  surplus  for  the  crown;  (3)  the 
priests  were  in  secular  suits  to  be  responsible  to  secular 
courts;  (4)  the  Gospel  should  be  read  in  the  schools.  The 
king  asked  the  bishops  in  person  to  surrender  their  castles, 
to  which  demand  they  all  agreed. 

We  may  feel  inclined  to  smile  upon  the  drastic  manner 
in  which  Qustavus  enacted  this  important  drama  of  Revo- 
lution, but  must  bear  in  mind  his  solitary  position.  He  had 
no  statesmen  of  ability  at  his  side,  nor  men  of  great  intellect 
and  power  to  sustain  him.  He  stood  alone,  and  few  knew 
as  yet  his  superior  qualities  as  a  statesman  and  an  organ- 
izer. The  tame  opposition,  soon  yielding  to  the  appeals  of 
the  burghers  and  peasants,  can  only  be  explained  through 
lack  of  leaders.  Ture  Joensson  (Tre  Rosor),  the  aristocratic 
chief  of  the  opposition,  was  a  vain  and  cowardly  man. 
Bishop  Brask,  the  head  of  the  clergy,  was  old  and  more 
of  a  diplomatist  than  a  man  of  action.  The  latest  stanch 
Romanist,  he  gave  up  his  cause,  finding  a  pretext  to  leave 
the  country  and  dying  in  his  self-imposed  exile.  The  eccle- 
siastical reforms  were  definitively  arranged  at  a  church 
meeting  at  (Erebro  in  the  following  year. 

It  was  one  of  the  evils  which  beset  the  reign  of  Gustavus 
that  revolts  constantly  occurred  in  various  provinces  and  for 
various  reasons.  Dalecarlia  took  the  lead.  The  inhabitants 
were  not  able  to  bear  the  distinction  won  by  their  great 
patriotic  services  in  the  times  of  Engelbrekt,  the  Stures, 
and  Gustavus.  Their  complaints  were  mostly  unreason- 
able, sometimes  ridiculous,  as  when  they  tried  to  prescribe 
the  kind  of  cloth  and  colors  to  be  used  at  court,  and  so  forth. 
There  was  no  fable,  however  stupid,  which  was  not  read- 
ily believed  by  them  and  the  responsibility  placed  on  the 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  147 

king.  Particularly  was  everything  eagerly  swallowed  which 
•poke  of  injustice  committed  against  the  descendants  of 
the  Stures.  A  daring  pretender  took  advantage  of  this 
fact.  He  was  bom  of  the  lowest  peasant  class,  serving 
on  an  estate  in  "Westmanland,  where  he  had  stolen  a  sum 
of  money  from  his  master.  Appearing  in  Dalecarlia,  where 
he  claimed  that  he  was  a  son  of  Lord  Sten  and  Christine 
Gyllenstierna,  he  gained  a  great  deal  of  support  among  the 
yeomen,  who  cried  with  him  like  children  when  he  spoke 
of  his  noble  father  and  asked  them  to  pray  for  his  soul. 
The  false  pretender  had  his  instructions  from  Peder  Sun- 
nan  vseder  ;  he  married  in  Norway  a  woman  of  noble  birth, 
and,  upon  his  return  to  Dalecarlia,  surrounded  himself  with 
a  regular  court.  An  end  was  put  to  his  career  by  a  letter 
from  Christine  Gyllenstierna,  written  at  the  request  of  the 
king,  in  which  she  told  the  Dalecarlians  that  her  son  Nils, 
whom  the  pretender  impersonated,  had  recently  died,  and 
that  an  impostor  was  misleading  them.  The  false  Nils  Sture 
answered  by  claiming  that  he  was  born  before  marriage, 
the  would-be-reason  why  his  mother  did  "hot  acknowledge 
him.  This  even  the  Dalecarlians  found  was  a  stretching  of 
truth.  The  pretender,  who  had  been  stamping  coins  with 
his  image  and  held  the  demeanor  of  a  ruling  prince,  fled 
to  Norway  and  thence  to  Rostock,  where  he  was  captured 
and  beheaded.  No  blood  was  shed  during  this  period  of 
revolt;  but  the  king,  who  was  crowned  at  Upsala  in  1528, 
proceeded  from  his  coronation  to  Dalecarlia  with  an  army 
of  14,000  men.  He  commanded  the  Dalecarlians  to  meet 
him,  and  forgave  them  after  a  severe  sermon  of  reproach, 
making  them  surrender  the  chief  supporters  of  the  **Dal- 
junker,"  who  were  executed  on  the  spot. 

No  better  was  the  outcome  of  a  revolt  prepared  by  some 


148  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

nobles  of  West  Gothland  in  the  following  year.  They  tried 
in  vain  to  make  the  population  join  with  them.  The  king 
managed  to  obtain  their  secret  correspondence,  and  had  the 
guilty  ones  arraigned  before  a  meeting  at  which  he  scru- 
tinized and  repudiated  the  false  charges  made  against  him. 
The  nobles  asked  forgiveness  and  were  pardoned,  with  the 
exception  of  two,  who  were  beheaded.  But  the  originators 
of  the  revolt  had  fled.  They  were  Ture  Joensson  and 
Bishop  Magnus  of  Skara.  The  former  joined  the  deposed 
King  Christian,  who,  in  1532,  prepared  an  attack  on  Sweden 
in  his  attempts  to  recapture  his  crowns.  With  him  were 
other  such  distinguished  traitors  as  Gustavus  Trolle  and 
Bemdt  von  Melen.  Gustavus  I.  sent  a  splendid  army 
to  meet  Christian  near  Kongelf.  Christian  withdrew  in 
disappointment,  leaving  Ture  Joensson  behind  in  the 
streets  of  Kongelf,  minus  a  head.  Christian  was  im- 
prisoned by  his  uncle,  Frederic  of  Denmark,  and  died 
in  captivity. 

In  order  to  pay  the  debt  to  Lubeck  it  was  decided  at  a 
meeting  at  Upsala,  in  1530,  that  the  bells  of  the  churches 
should  be  taken  to  be  melted  down.  Concessions  to  do  so 
were  asked  and  obtained  from  the  various  communities. 
But  upon  the  surrender  of  the  bells  discontent  grew  up. 
In  Dalecarlia  it  came  to  revolt  and  open  violence.  The 
people  refused  to  give  up  their  bells  or  took  the  surren- 
dered ones  back  with  force.  Threatening  letters  were  sent 
to  the  king,  who  at  first  pretended  to  ignore  the  whole  mat- 
ter. Christian  was  preparing  his  last  attack,  and  prudence 
seemed  advisable.  The  inducements  made  by  the  Swedish 
traitors  to  support  Christian's  claims  were  scornfully  re- 
pulsed by  the  Dalecarlians,  who  still  continued  with  their 
insulting  letters  to  the  king.     Gustavus  answered  them  in 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  149 

a  peaceful  way.  In  1533,  at  New  Year,  he  suddenly  ap- 
peared with  an  army  in  Dalecariia,  where  the  revolters  also 
this  time  received  a  severe  reproach  and  were  forced  to  give 
up  their  leaders.  These  were  executed,  and  that  ended  the 
last  revolt  of  Dalecarlia. 

In  the  following  year  Sweden  was  forced  into  a  war 
which  lasted  up  to  1536,  the  so-called  **Feud  of  the  Counts," 
the  chief  participants  being  the  counts  of  Holstein,  Olden- 
burg and  Hoya.  Sweden  sided  with  Christian  of  Holstein, 
who  fought  for  his  rights  to  the  throne  of  Denmark  after 
his  father  Frederic,  being  opposed  by  the  other  counts  and 
by  Lubeck.  Hard  and  repeated  pressure  was  brought  to 
bear  on  Svante  Sture,  a  son  of  Lord  Sten  and  Christine 
Gyllenstierna,  to  appear  as  a  pretender  against  Gustavus; 
but  the  noble  youth,  who  was  sojourning  in  Germany, 
firmly  withstood  these  temptations.  His  mother  had  mar- 
ried John  Turesson,  a  son  of  the  traitor  Ture  Joensson,  who 
was  as  able  a  man  as  his  father  was  a  bad  one,  being  the 
successful  commander  of  a  Swedish  army  which  invaded 
fche  Danish  provinces  held  by  the  count  of  Oldenburg.  A 
Swedish  fleet,  created  through  sacrifices  of  nobles  and 
peasants,  distinguished  itself  repeatedly.  The  war  ended 
In  the  defeat  of  Lubeck. 

Gustavus  had,  since  the  end  of  the  work  of  liberation, 
crushed  the  power  of  the  Church,  punished  the  revolting 
peasants,  kept  the  aristocracy  within  bounds,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  supremacy  of  Lubeck.  But  he  went  still  further, 
trying  to  deprive  the  Church  of  its  last  vestige  of  authority, 
to  introduce  a  minute  administration  of  the  provinces  and  to 
enforce  the  absolute  power  of  the  crown.  To  these  plans  he 
was  led  by  two  foreign  advisers,  Georg  Norman  and  Kon- 
rad  Pentinger.     But  it  must  be  said  to  the  credit  of  the 


^50  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

king  that  their  influence  vanished  when  he  saw  that  their 
** reforms"  were  not  acceptable  to  the  people.  From  this 
period  of  his  reign,  one  noteworthy  and  wholesome  measure 
remains,  the  reintroduction  of  the  former  hereditary  order 
of  succession  to  the  throne.  It  was  formulated  and  accepted 
at  the  Riksdag  of  CErebro  (Jan.  4,  1540),  memorable  also 
through  death  sentences  pronounced  upon  two  of  the  apos- 
tles of  the  Swedish  Reformation.  The  king  had  long  re- 
garded his  chancellor  and  the  two  brothers,  Olaus  and 
Laurentius  Petri,  the  latter  archbishop  of  Upsala,  with 
suspicion.  The  climax  was  reached  when  a  conspiracy 
by  German  burghers  of  Stockholm  against  the  king's  life 
was  discovered,  and  it  was  proved  that  Olaus  Petri  and 
Laurentius  Andreae  were  conscious  of  its  purport,  without 
making  it  known  to  the  king.  They  were  condemned  to 
death.  Archbishop  Laurentius  being  forced  to  take  a  seat  as 
one  of  the  judges,  but  pardoned  at  the  request  of  the  burghers 
of  Stockholm,  on  the  grounds  that  the  ministers  had  re- 
ceived their  knowledge  on  the  pledge  of  secrecy  through 
confession.  Laurentius  Andrese  lost  his  position  as  the 
king's  chancellor.  In  the  following  year  each  church 
in  the  country  was  presented  with  a  copy  of  the  com- 
plete translation  of  the  Bible,  the  work  of  the  two  re- 
formers. 

The  greatest,  most  serious  and  most  expensive  of  peas- 
ants' revolts  was  that  called  the  Dacke  Feud  (1542  and 
1543),  after  its  leader  Nils  Dacke,  a  peasant  born  in  Ble- 
king,  emigrated  to  Smaland,  which  became  the  scene 
of  his  revolt.  The  peasants  were  resolved  to  make  war 
on  the  royal  baihffs,  the  nobles  and  the  new  religion,  and 
found  in  Dacke  an  excellent  leader,  ferocious,  daring  and 
of  some  military  ability.     The  forces  sent  by  the  king  to 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  151 

meet  him  were  repeatedly  routed.  The  king  was  seriously 
alarmed,  particulariy  since  the  revolt  attracted  attention 
abroad  and  was  encouraged  by  Emperor  Charles  V.,  in 
the  interests  of  the  deposed  Christian,  his  brother-in-law, 
and  by  several  German  princes.  The  emperor  wrote  to 
Nils  Dacke  a  letter,  preserved  to  this  day,  although  it  never 
reached  its  destination,  in  which  Charles,  with  pride,  recalls 
his  Gothic  (that  is,  according  to  the  views  of  his  time,  Swed- 
ish) origin:  **Sumus  et  nos  de  gente  Gothorum.*'  Nils 
Dacke's  plan  was  to  place  Svante  Sture  on  the  throne.  He 
wrote  him  a  letter  to  this  effect,  which  the  noble  Sture 
handed  over  to  the  king,  together  with  the  messenger  who 
brought  it.  After  much  effort  the  king  gathered  an  army 
of  considerable  strength,  which  was  ordered  against  Dacke, 
who  was  defeated  at  Lake  Asund.  He  fled  and  was  pur- 
sued by  the  troops  into  Bleking,  where  he  was  captured  and 
shot.  This  revolt  cost  Gustavus  dearly,  but  was  a  good 
lesson  in  regard  to  the  more  immature  of  his  reforms, 
against  which  it,  to  a  great  extent,  was  directed. 

Now  the  storms  and  trials  of  his  reign  were  at  an  end, 
and  Gustavus  allowed  to  gather  the  fruit  of  his  wise  man- 
agement, wbich  itself  grew  wiser  with  his  old  age.  In  1644 
the  Union  of  Succession  of  1540  was  confirmed  at  Westeros. 
In  matters  of  finance  Gustavus  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
modern  state.  The  bailiffs  were  multiplied  and  made  to 
give  close  accounts  of  the  revenues.  Fiefs  granted  to  nobles 
before  were  now  kept  by  the  crown.  The  great  nobles  who 
held  fiefs  were  placed  under  stricter  control.  The  bloody 
Christian  did  useful  work  for  the  crown  by  ridding  it  of 
many  unruly  heads.  The  privileges  granted  by  Westeros 
Recess  were  enforced,  but  the  king  saw  to  it  that  the  nobil- 
ity received  back  only  what  was  properly  due.     But  when 


J5S  BISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

the  crown  was  concerned,  property  was  taken  from  the 
Church  to  the  greatest  tension  of  these  privileges,  and  like- 
wise for  the  king's  private  rights,  by  means  of  which  less 
scrupulous  tactics  both  the  state  and  the  king  were  en- 
riched. The  former  came  in  possession  of  12,000  farms, 
the  latter  of  4,000,  in  his  case  called  ''inherited  estates.*' 
As  Gustavus  was  a  great  economizer,  he  left  a  treasury  re- 
plete with  money  and  uncoined  silver,  in  spite  of  elaborate 
pomp  on  state  occasions,  expensive  royal  marriages  and 
wooings,  and  a  feud  with  Russia.  From  which  of  the  two 
treasuries  in  his  care  expenses  were  paid,  Gustavus  was  not 
overparticular.  He  set  a  good  example  as  a  practical 
farmer  and  agriculturist,  the  dairy  at  Gripsholm  standing 
under  the  personal  supervision  of  the  queen,  with  twenty- 
two  less  ladylike  assistants. 

Gustavus  created  the  nucleus  to  a  standing  army  of  hired 
troops,  of  natives  and  foreigners,  about  16,000  in  numbers, 
and  provided  Sweden  with  a  considerable  and  well-equipped 
fleet.  He  encouraged  the  mining  industry  by  supporting 
the  silver  mines  of  Sala  and  the  copper  mines  of  Falun. 
He  introduced  the  working  of  iron,  according  to  new  meth- 
ods, calling  in  German  experts  whose  work  he  superintended 
in  person.  Putting  an  end  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Han- 
seatic  commerce,  he  made  treaties  of  commerce  with  the 
Netherlands  and  France,  making  Helsingfors  in  Finland 
the  centre  of  the  trade  with  Russia.  On  the  western  coast 
he  founded  the  new  town  of  Elfsborg,  and  ordered  the  in- 
habitants of  New  LcedcBse  to  move  thither.  To  the  com- 
mon people  Gustavus  held  an  attitude  which  shows 
evidence  of  love  and  confidence.  Many  of  his  letters  and 
messages  to  them  abound  in  hints  at  practical  methods  in 
farming.     The  schools  were  improved  and  partly  reorgan- 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  163 

ized  through  the  spirit  of  Reformation,  while  the  University 
of  Upsala  lost  in  importance  and  prestige,  the  students  again 
going  abroad. 

The  war  with  Russia,  commencing  in  1554,  and  marked 
by  mutual  invasions,  offered  no  aspect  of  importance,  and 
was  ended  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1657. 

The  founder  of  the  famous  royal  line  of  Vasa  was,  per- 
sonally, a  man  of  prepossessing  appearance,  tall,  and  of 
commanding  presence,  having  blond  hair  and  beard,  sharp 
blue  eyes,  full  lips,  rosy  cheeks  and  a  fine  frame.  He  was 
fond  of  costly  garments,  and  the  styles  of  his  day  were  becom- 
ing to  him.  Gustavus  was  of  an  amiable  and  cheerful  dis- 
position, although  of  a  quick  temper.  He  had  a  rare  gift 
of  winning  the  goodwill  and  confidence  of  all  classes  by 
addressing  everybody  according  to  their  compass  of  intel- 
lect and  conversation.  He  was  fond  of  music,  and  played 
and  sang.  The  lute  was  his  favorite  instrument,  which  he 
liked  to  play  in  his  evenings  of  solitude.  Gustavus  pos- 
sessed a  rare  intellect  and  a  remarkable  memory.  "Well 
aware  of  his  own  weakness  to  give  way  to  his  quick  temper, 
he  generally  postponed  all  decisive  action  in  matters  of  im- 
portance until  sure  of  his  full  power  of  discernment.  He 
was  not  a  brilliant  genius,  but  a  typical  prince  of  the  Re- 
naissance epoch,  never  afraid  of  taking  action  in  instances 
without  a  precedence,  or  of  the  consequences  of  his  ac- 
tions. His  letters  and  addresses  evince  an  unusual  degree 
of  common  sense,  clothed  in  a  language  of  manly  vigor, 
terseness  and  humor,  and  are  fine  specimens  of  the  mod- 
ern Swedish,  such  as  it  meets  us  in  this  its  period  of 
rejuvenation,  brought  about  by  the  spirit  of  the  Refor- 
mation. There  is  something  in  the  oral  and  literary  elo- 
quence of  Gustavus  Vasa  which  makes  it  easy  to  believe 


<,^54  HISTORY   OF    SWEDEN 

that  he  was  a  descendant  of  Birgitta.  Gustayns  did  not 
possess  the  fine  erudition  of  his  sons,  who  were  considered 
to  be  men  of  learning  in  their  time,  for  he  early  left  his 
university  studies  for  the  court  and  the  war;  but  he  was 
able  to  pass  such  good  opinions  upon  subjects  of  art  and 
science  that  he  astonished  many  who  had  made  these  a 
special  study.  He  had  the  power  of  recognizing  people 
whose  faces  he  once  had  noticed  after  ten  to  twenty 
years  of  absence,  and  was  also  skilled  in  divining  what 
character  dwelt  behind  every  face.  What  he  once  heard 
he  never  forgot.  Where  he  had  travelled  once  he  could 
never  mistake  the  road,  and  knew  not  only  the  names  of 
the  villages  but  also  the  names  of  the  peasants  whom  he 
had  met.  His  Hf e  was  led  by  the  unswaying  principles  of 
an  earnest  piety  and  high  morals.  His  nephew,  Peter 
Brahe  the  Elder,  who  in  a  chronicle  has  given  the  above 
picture  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  adds:  **Jn  surnma,  God  had 
bequeathed  him,  above  others,  with  great  ability,  high  in- 
tellect and  many  princely  virtues,  so  that  he  was  well 
worthy  of  carrying  sceptre  and  crown.  For  he  was  not 
only  sagacious  and  kind  above  others,  but  also  manly  and 
able.  He  was  sharp  and  just  in  passing  sentences,  in  many 
cases  being  charitable  and  merciful.*' 

The  royal  court  was  characterized  by  a  joyous  and  ele- 
vated spirit.  Every  day  after  dinner  all  the  courtiers  col- 
lected in  the  dancing  hall.  The  lady  of  ceremonies  then 
entered  with  the  ladies  of  the  court,  and  the  royal  musi- 
cians dispensed  music  for  dancing.  Every  other  or  third 
day  the  king  went  out  hunting  or  horseback  riding  with 
the  gentlemen  and  ladies  of  his  court.  The  youths  of  the 
nobility  once  a  week  held  exhibitions  of  fencing  and 
other  knightly  sport,  the  king  taking  an  interested  and  ac- 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  155 

tive  part.  Those  who  excelled  received  prizes  in  the  form 
of  rings  of  gold  or  chaplets  of  pearls  and  led  the  dance  of 
the  evening. 

Gustavus  I.  was  three  times  married.  His  first  consort 
was  young  neurotic  Catherine,  princess  of  Saxony-Lauen- 
burg,  whom  he  married  while  the  **  Revolt  of  the  Bells" 
was  going  on  in  Dalecarlia,  and  who  died  four  years  later, 
leaving  him  a  son,  Eric,  of  her  own  hysteric  temperament. 
Shortly  after  the  death  of  Catherine,  the  king  married  a 
young  lady  of  the  highest  Swedish  nobility,  Margaret  Leij- 
onhufvud,  with  whom  he  lived  in  a  long  and  happy  union, 
eixded  by  her  death  in  1551,  and  blessed  by  ten  children, 
among  whom  the  sons  John,  Magnus  and  Charles.  Lady 
Margaret  had  been  in  love  with  the  oldest  son  of  Christine 
Gyllenstierna,  Svante  Sture,  whom  she  renounced,  and 
who  married  her  younger  sister  Martha.  Queen  Margaret 
was  a  tender  and  high-minded  woman,  who  won  the  love 
and  absolute  confidence  of  her  royal  consort,  on  whose  quick 
temper  she  exerted  a  quieting  influence,  comforting  him 
in  hours  of  trouble  and  distress.  She  preserved  as  queen 
the  plain  and  severe  habits  of  her  youth,  having  a  personal 
superintendence  over  the  dairies  of  the  royal  castles,  espe- 
cially those  of  Gripsholm  and  Svartsjoe.  She  was  interested 
in  brewing,  baking  and  other  household  affairs,  often  mak- 
ing with  her  own  hands  the  clothes  of  her  children.  When 
the  king  referred  to  Queen  Margaret,  he  always  called  her 
"our  dear  mistress  of  the  house.'*  The  king  remained  a 
nobleman  of  his  day  in  the  purple.  Royal  splendor  was  dis^ 
played  on  great  occasions  only.  Simplicity  was  the  prin- 
ciple of  every-day  Ufe.  When  entertaining  his  friends,  the 
king  took  great  pains  to  please  and  arranged  many  details 
himself.      Upon  one  occasion  of  this   kind  at   Gripsholm, 


256  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

Queen  Margaret  carried  in  the  sweetmeats  and  cookies, 
while  the  king  served  the  wine  and  asked  his  guests  to  be 
glad  and  make  merry. 

Queen  Margaret  was  suddenly  taken  ill  while  partaking 
in  a  pleasure  trip  on  Lake  Mselar,  and  died  in  1561,  after  a 
touching  farewell  to  her  consort.  In  the  following  year  the 
king  married  the  young  Catherine  Stenbock,  a  daughter  of 
Gustavus  Stenbock,  an  intimate  friend  to  the  king,  and 
Lady  Brita  Leijonhufvud,  a  sister  of  Queen  Margaret.  In 
the  hves  and  fate  of  Catherine  and  Margaret  there  are 
several  remarkable  coincidences.  Like  Queen  Margaret, 
Catherine  was  secretly  in  love  with  some  one  else  when 
the  royal  proposal  was  made.  Strange  enough  the  ob- 
ject of  Catherine's  secret  affection  was,  hke  Margaret's, 
a  son  of  Cliristine  Gyllenstiema,  Gustavus  Johnsson  Tre 
Rosor.  This  young  man  was  the  grandson  of  conceited 
Ture  Jcensson  and  the  son  of  able  John  Turesson,  the 
second  consort  of  Christine  Gyllenstiema.  The  family 
name  was  Tre  Rosor,  after  the  coat-of-arms,  which  con- 
sisted of  three  roses.  As  her  aunt  Margaret  must  renounce 
the  hero  of  her  dreams,  so  also  Catherine.  Like  his  half- 
brother,  Svante  Sture,  Gustavus  Tre  Rosor  married  the 
sister  of  his  first  love,  and  this  marriage,  like  that  of 
Svante,  turned  out  a  happy  one.  There  was  a  last  coin- 
cidence in  the  life  of  the  two  queens.  When  Margaret 
heard  that  the  royal  sponsor  was  coming,  she  knew  his 
errand  and  concealed  herself  in  an  oak  chest  in  a  distant 
part  of  the  castle  of  Ekeberg.  Catherine,  upon  a  similar 
occasion,  ran  down  in  the  gardens  of  Torpa  and  hid  herself 
behind  a  bush.  The  third  marriage  of  the  king  was  a 
happy  one,  in  spite  of  the  great  difference  in  years  between 
the  consorts.     The  clergy  tried  to  raise  objections,  holding 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDElf  167 

that  Gustaviis  and  Catherine  were  too  nearly  related  to 
make  the  marriage  a  legal  one.  After  some  severe  press- 
ure these  objections  were  finally  dropped. 

Queen  Catherine  thus  expressed  the  state  of  her  feelings 
after  her  marriage:  "Gustavus  is  dear  to  me,  but  I  shall 
never  forget  the  Rose." 

The  king  gave  scrupulous  attention  to  the  education  of 
his  children.  They  were  brought  up  in  simplicity  and  stern- 
ness, but  received  a  manifold  training  and  a  great  amount 
of  instruction.  While  they  were  studying  at  Upsala,  hama 
and  butter  were  sent  them  from  the  royal  estates  to  make 
part  of  their  breakfasts  and  suppers.  In  spite  of  these  patri- 
archal endeavors,  Eric  and  John  grew  up  to  be  typical  Re- 
naissance princes,  fond  of  extravagance  and  luxury.  The 
king  wrote  once  to  Duke  Magnus:  "Our  dear  Lady  Cath- 
erine sends  thee  five  shirts  which  thou  must  bear  in  mind 
to  take  good  care  of;  item^  to  keep  thy  head  clean  and  not 
ride  or  run  too  much."  When  his  sons  grew  older.  King 
Gustavus  used  to  admonish  them  orally  before  the  hearth 
or  at  the  table,  or  by  letters.  His  wise  counsel  recalls  the 
terse  and  sharp  advice  of  Havamal  in  the  Edda:  **Ye  shall 
weigh  all  matters  carefully,  perform  them  quickly  and 
stand  by  it,  putting  nothing  off  to  the  morrow;  counsel 
not  followed  up  in  due  time  is  like  clouds  without 
rain  in  times  of  dearth."  **To  speak  once  and  stand 
by  it,  is  better  than  to  talk  one  hundred  times."  "Sur- 
round ye  ever  with  able  men  of  pure  living;  one  shall 
believe  of  ye  what  one  knows  about  them."  Duke  Eric 
early  caused  him  trouble  by  stubbornness,  defiance  and 
vanity.  Duke  John,  the  oldest  child  of  Queen  Margaret, 
long  remained  his  favorite,  but  ended  by  causing  him 
grief  through  disobedience  and  secret  conspiracy  with  Eric, 


158  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

In  his  old  age,  King  Gustavus  suffered  through  failing 
health  and  melancholy.  He  complained  because  the  fate 
of  his  country  seemed  uncertain  on  account  of  the  unsta- 
bility  of  his  sons,  and  because  his  old  friends,  like  John 
Turesson  and  Christine  Gyllenstierna,  passed  away  before 
him,  leaving  him  alone  in  the  world. 

When  King  Gustavus  felt  that  the  end  was  drawing 
near,  he  sent  word  to  the  four  Estates  or  representative 
classes  of  the  country,  the  nobles,  clergymen,  burghers  and 
yeomen,  to  meet  him  at  Stockholm  around  the  Midsummer 
of  1560.  He  made  known  to  the  Estates  his  will,  which  his 
sons  pledged  themselves  by  oath  to  fulfil.  Eric  should  in- 
herit the  crown,  according  to  the  will,  but  the  three  other 
sons  were  to  receive  duchies  which  they  should  govern  with 
a  good  deal  of  authority.  It  became  evident  that  the  king 
had  taken  pains  to  provide  liberally  for  his  sons.  But  it  ap- 
pears as  if  he  intended  to  make  them  all  responsible  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  work  of  their  father,  by  distributing 
the  power  between  them. 

When  the  Estates  had  collected  in  the  hall  of  state  the 
old  monarch  entered  with  his  sons.  After  greeting  those 
present  he  deUvered  his  farewell  address : 

**I  respect  the  power  of  God,  which  with  me  has  rein- 
stalled the  ancient  royal  line  on  the  throne  of  Sweden.  Ye 
have  without  doubt  learned,  and  those  of  you  who  are  some- 
what advanced  in  years  have  seen  for  yourselves,  how  our  dear 
fatherland,  already  for  ages  in  distress  and  misery  through 
foreign  lordship,  at  last  suffered  the  same  through  the  grim 
despot  King  Christian,  and  how  it  pleased  God  to  liberate 
us  from  this  tyranny  through  me.  For  this  it  behooves  us, 
high  and  low,  master  and  servant,  old  and  young,  never  to 
forget  that  same  divine  help.     For  what  of  a  man  was  I  to 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  159 

set  myself  against  a  mighty  king,  who  not  only  ruled  three 
kingdoms,  but  who  also  was  related  to  the  powerful  em- 
peror Charles  V.  and  the  noble  princes  of  Germany.  But 
God  has  performed  the  work,  made  me  the  worker  of  his 
miracle,  and  been  my  help  and  comfort  during  a  reign  of 
forty  years,  the  cares  of  which  have  hastened  me  on  with 
gray  hairs  to  the  grave.  Forsooth,  I  could  liken  myself  to 
King  David,'*  and  the  tears  came  to  his  eyes,  "whom  God 
from  a  shepherd  made  to  a  reigning  king  over  his  people.  I 
could  not  divine  that  glory,  when  I  in  woods  and  desert 
fells  must  needs  conceal  myself  from  the  bloodthirsty 
swords  of  my  enemies.  Grace  and  blessing  have  in  a  wide 
measure  been  granted  both  me  and  you  through  the  knowl- 
edge of  God's  true  Gospel,  also  in  the  shape  of  material 
abundance,  which  is  evident  all  through  the  land,  thank  the 
Lord.  If  during  my  reign  anything  good  has  been  accom- 
plished, give  ye  God  the  glory  of  it.  But  for  what  there 
has  been  of  failure  and  fault,  I  beg  you,  as  faithful  subjects, 
to  forbear  and  forgive.  God  is  my  witness  that  it  has  not 
been  by  meanness,  but  by  human  weakness,  that  I  have  not 
been  able  to  do  better.  My  ambition  has  always  been  the 
improvement  and  welfare  of  the  people  of  my  country.  I 
know  full  well  that  I  have  been  a  severe  king  in  the  eyes 
of  many.  Yet  that  day  shall  come  when  the  children  of 
Sweden  willingly  would  dig  me  up  from  under  the  sod  if 
that  they  could.  My  time  soon  is  at  an  end.  I  need  not  in 
the  stars  or  other  signs  search  for  my  last  moment;  my 
body  is  to  me  the  trustworthy  messenger  that  I  soon  shall 
stand  before  the  severe  King  of  kings,  to  give  account 
for  the  glorious  but  earthly  crown  of  Sweden  which  I 
have  worn." 

The  Estates  listened  with  great  emotion  to  the  words  of 


160  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

the  old  monarch.  After  the  king  had  ceased  speaking  and 
his  will  had  been  sanctioned,  Qustavus  left  the  assembly 
supported  by  his  sons  and  nodding  his  farewell  to  those 
standing  near.  Three  months  later  he  was  taken  ill,  and 
September  29,  1660,  the  great  liberator,  revolutionist  and 
organizer  of  his  country  expired. 


CHAPTER  IX 
Beformation  and  Reaction — The  Sons  of  Oustavus  I. 

ERIC  XIV.  succeeded  his  father  in  1560,  commencing 
his  reign  under  the  most  brilliant  of  auspices.  But 
the  old  King  Gustavus  had  foreseen  that  his  sons 
would  cause  danger  to  the  realm  which  he  with  infinite  care 
had  built  up.  After  his  forty  years'  work  of  construction 
followed  forty  years  of  destruction  which  his  elder  sons 
brought  to  bear  upon  it.  Fortunately,  that  work  was  so 
Bolid  that  it  withstood  this  bravely,  to  rise  rejuvenated 
when  loving  hands  anew  were  laid  to  it. 

King  Eric  was  one  of  the  most  gifted  monarchs  of  his 
time,  handsome,  eloquent,  learned,  a  fine  linguist,  a  musi- 
cian and  artist.  But  his  sharp  reason  carried  him  to  the 
excess  of  suspicion,  his  artistic  temperament  into  hysterics, 
and  he  was  vain,  overbearing,  quick-tempered,  licentious 
and  cruel.  His  leaning  toward  mysticism  made  him  de- 
voted to  astrology. 

Eric's  first  ambition  was  to  reduce  the  power  of  the 
dukes,  convoking  a  Riksdag  at  Arboga,  in  1561,  where 
the  "Arboga  Articles"  were  formulated  for  such  purpose, 
the  dukes  being  forced  to  acquiesce.  In  order  to  reduce  the 
distance  between  the  dukes  and  the  nobility,  King  Eric,  at 
his  coronation — celebrated  with  a  lavish  display  of  pomp  at 
Upsala  in  June  of  the  same  year — instituted  hereditary  dig^ 

(161) 


162  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

nities  of  counts  and  barons.  Svante  Sture,  Peter  Brahe  the 
Elder  and  Gustavus  Johnsson  Tre  Rosor  were  created 
counts,  the  first  and  third  one  the  sons  of  Christine 
Gyllenstierna,  Peter  Brahe  being  a  cousin  of  Gustavus 
Vasa.  Among  the  barons  were  Sten  Leijonhufvud,  Gus- 
tavus Stenbock,  relatives  of  the  dukes,  and  Clas  Kristersson 
Horn  (of  Aminne).  Only  small  fiefs  were  given  with  the 
new  dignities,  which  were  nothing  but  an  outward  sign  of 
the  distinction  existing  between  a  higher  aristocracy  already 
extant  and  the  lower  nobility.  In  order  to  strengthen  his 
connection  with  the  nobles,  Eric  made  the  estate  on  which 
a  noble  fixed  his  domicile  exempt  from  russtjenst.  He  was 
jealous  of  his  power  and  dignity,  for  which  reasons  he  held 
sharp  supervision  over  his  officials.  He  instituted  a  su- 
preme court,  consisting  of  twelve  men  of  low  birth,  who 
every  three  years  made  a  tour  of  the  country  to  hold  court 
in  the  name  of  the  king.  These  justices  were  the  creatures 
of  Eric,  and  soon  brought  on  themselves  discredit  and  hatred 
through  their  servile  and  cruel  acts.  Among  these  justices 
was  GcBran  Persson,  an  able  and  powerful  man,  revengeful 
and  cruel,  who  soon  rose  to  be  the  favorite  and  influential 
€fcdviser  of  his  master. 

Eric  was  intent  upon  making  a  great  match,  wooing 
Elizabeth  of  England,  Mary  Stuart  of  Scotland,  Renata  of 
Lothringia  and  Christine  of  Hesse,  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess, overlooking  Margaret  of  Valois,  who  was  anxious  to 
marry  him.  His  mistress,  Carin  Monsdotter,  a  child  of  the 
people,  but  beautiful  and  of  a  noble  character,  for  whom  he 
had  formed  a  secret  attachment,  finally  was  made  his  queen. 

The  German  Order  which  held  Esthonia  and  Livonia 
Buffered  during  this  period  considerably  through  Russian  in- 
vasions.    The  town  of  Reval,  with  a  large  part  of  Esthonia, 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  163 

was  ceded  to  Sweden  in  1562,  upon  the  receipt  of  a  loan, 
Eric  immediately  giving  his  attention  to  the  depressed  and 
enslaved  peasants  of  that  section.     Later  the  grandmaster 
of  the  Order  turned  Livonia  over  to  the  king  of   Poland, 
who,  in  need  of  money,  placed  seven  castles  of  this  province 
at  the  disposal  of  John,  duke  of  Finland.     John  had  ten- 
dered a  loan  to  the  Polish  king  and  married  his  sister  Cath- 
erine.    Eric  considered  these  negotiations  as  harmful  to  his 
royal  authority,  and  he  asked  his  brother  to  give  account  of 
them  in  person.     John  refused,  making  the  royal  emissaries 
his  prisoners.      The  Swedish  Riksdag  condemned  John  to 
death  for  high  treason,  and  an  army  was  despatched  to  Fin- 
land, which  carried  back  Duke  John  and  his  consort  as  pris- 
oners.    John's  sentence  was  commuted  to  imprisonment  at 
Gripsholm,  proud  Catherine  choosing  to  share  the  fate  of 
her  husband   (1563).     The  prison  life  of  the  ducal  couple 
at  Gripsholm  was  not  an  unpleasant  one.      They  enjoyed 
a  great  deal  of  liberty  and  luxury  at  the  splendid  castle  in 
Lake  Mselar,  King  Eric  sending  his  brother  a  copy  of  Boc- 
caccio's **Decamerone"  in  German,  to  read  for  a  pastime. 
The  duke  read  the  work  and  translated  it  into  Swedish. 
The  room  called  **king  John's  prison,"  which  is  still  pre- 
served with  the  artistic  decoration  which  Duke  Charles  later 
bestowed  on  it,  served  as  sleeping  apartment  for  the  pris* 
oners,  and  there  Catherine  gave  life  to  two  children,  one  of 
whom  was  to  become  the  founder  of  the  Polish  line  of  Vasa 
kings.     It  is  said  that  Duke  Magnus  became  a  prey  to  the 
disposition  of  insanity  latent  in  his  family,  by  being  forced 
to  sign  the  death  sentence  of  his  brother  John,  King  Eric  be- 
ing anxious  of  having  him  share  the  responsibility.     Magnua 
lived  until  quite  an  advanced  age,  but  was  never  cured  of 
his  mental  ailment.     Even  in  his  best  hours  he  was  not  of 


lt>4  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

■very  bright  intellect.  While  sojourning  at  the  castle  of  Vad- 
Btena,  by  the  Lake  Vetter,  he  had  the  vision  of  a  mermaid, 
who  coaxed  him  to  follow  her.  The  duke  jumped  from  the 
window  of  his  apartment  into  the  moat  below.  He  did  not 
fmstain  any  serious  injury,  but  the  incident  made  the  un- 
happy prince  famous  in  tradition  and  song. 

In  May,  1 660,  a  war  commenced  with  Denmark  which, 
with  several  intermissions,  lasted  for  seven  years.  It  has 
been  called  The  Seven  Years'  War  of  the  North.  About  the 
same  time  that  Eric  became  king  of  Sweden,  the  young 
ambitious  Frederic  II.  ascended  the  throne  of  Denmark. 
In  the  days  of  Gustavus  I.,  Christian  III.  had  appropriated 
the  Swedish  emblem  of  three  crowns  for  the  Danish  seal  of 
Btate,  as  if  by  this  proclaiming  that  the  Union  was  consid- 
ered still  extant  or  that  it  could  be  re-established  at  the  op- 
portune moment.  King  Gustavus  had  protested,  but  with 
no  result.  When  King  Frederic  kept  up  the  irritating  fact 
of  preserving  the  Swedish  emblem,  King  Eric  answered 
by  placing  the  emblems  of  Denmark  and  Norway  in  the 
Swedish  seal  of  state.  This  made  things  worse  and  served 
as  a  nominal  cause  for  war.  The  principal  interest  at  stake 
was  the  supremacy  in  the  Baltic  provinces.  The  diocese  of 
CElsel,  which  had  accepted  a  Danish  protectorate,  was  gov- 
erned by  a  brother  of  the  Danish  king,  who  had  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  Poland  against  Sweden,  Denmark  also  join- 
ing it. 

In  May,  1563,  a  Swedish  fleet,  commanded  by  Jacob 
Bagge,  left  Sweden  to  bring  Princess  Christine  of  Hesse, 
the  promised  bride  of  King  Eric.  A  Danish  fleet  met  them, 
at  the  island  of  Bomholm,  and  greeted  the  Swedish  ships 
with  some  shots  from  their  sharply  loaded  cannon.  The 
Swedes  returned  the  fire  and  a  naval  battle  followed,  which 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  163 

ended  in  a  defeat  for  the  Danes,  who  lost  their  flagship. 
When  Jacob  Bagge  arrived  in  Rostock,  where  he  was  tc 
meet  the  princess,  her  father  was  found  unwilling  to  let  hei 
sail  on  account  of  the  insecurity  brought  about  by  the  com* 
mencing  naval  hostilities.  This  would  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances have  enraged  the  vain  and  sensitive  king,  bu< 
Eric  forgot  his  rage  in  his  delight  at  the  naval  victory. 
Jacob  Bagge  was  rewarded  with  a  triumphal  entry  into 
Stockholm  upon  his  return.  He  entered  the  city  on  fool 
with  a  golden  chain  round  his  neck,  followed  by  his  sub- 
commanders  and  surrounded  by  the  banners  taken  during 
the  battle.  The  prisoners  followed,  in  chains  and  with 
shaved  heads.  The  king's  fool  was  dancing  in  front  of 
them,  playing  on  his  fiddle.  A  Danish  herald  soon  after- 
ward reached  Stockholm,  declaring  war  with  great  pomp 
and  ceremony  on  behalf  of  his  royal  master.  The  city  of 
Lubeck  sent  a  messenger  to  Stockholm  on  a  similar  errand, 
but  was  not  received  by  the  king.  "Since  he  is  sent  by  the 
mayor  and  council  of  his  town  and  other  similar  lard- 
mongers,  let  him  be  heard  and  answered  by  the  mayor  and 
council  of  Stockholm,''  was  the  royal  order. 

Jacob  Bagge  was  ordered  to  sea  with  the  Swedish  fleet 
later  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year.  He  met  the  imited 
fleets  of  Denmark  and  Lubeck  at  the  island  of  CEland,  in  the 
Baltic.  A  terrible  battle  ensued,  which  lasted  until  the 
fleets  were  separated  by  the  darkness  of  the  night,  without 
victory  being  won  by  either  side.  Jacob  Bagge  started  out 
with  his  fleet  again  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  com- 
manding a  new  flagship,  *'The  Matchless,"  which  carried 
two  hundred  cannon,  most  of  them  made  out  of  church  bells 
confiscated  by  Gustavus  Vasa.  A  new  battle  was  delivered 
between  the  islands  of  Gothland  and  CEland.     The  majority 


166  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

of  the  Swedish  ships  had  by  a  gale  been  separated  from  the 
admiral  and  Ms  flagship,  but  Jacob  Bagge  fought  valiantly 
for  a  whole  day,  continuing  the  battle  the  next  morning.  A 
catastrophe  brought  it  to  a  close.  **The  Matchless*'  caught 
fire  through  some  act  of  negligence,  a  barrel  of  powder  ex- 
ploding between  the  decks.  Jacob  Bagge  then  surrendered, 
and  was  taken  on  board  one  of  the  ships  of  Lubeck.  The 
enemies  took  possession  of  the  **The  Matchless'*  in  order  to 
plunder  it,  but  the  immense  ship  exploded  with  a  tremen- 
dous roar,  sinking  with  everybody  who  was  on  board.  Jacob 
Bagge  did  not  long  remain  in  Danish  captivity.  He  re- 
turned, to  be  greeted  with  the  greatest  distinction,  and  died 
as  governor-general  of  Stockholm. 

The  war  on  land  was  at  the  beginning  carried  on  only 
through  mutual  invasions,  both  sides  giving  proofs  of  cru- 
elty and  vandalism.  Elfsborg  surrendered  to  the  Danes. 
A  Swedish  army,  commanded  by  King  Eric  in  person,  en- 
tered the  province  of  Halland,  pillaging  and  plundering  and 
laying  siege  to  the  town  of  Halmstad.  King  Eric  suddenly 
raised  the  siege,  when  news  came  that  King  Frederic  was 
approaching  with  an  army.  The  Swedish  troops  scattered 
in  various  directions,  one  division  being  met  and  defeated 
by  the  Danes.  The  whole  of  Northern  Norway  was  in- 
vaded by  Swedish  troops  and  temporarily  subjugated.  The 
entire  kingdom  of  Norway  was  very  near  being  altogether 
absorbed  by  Sweden.  This  would  have  been  a  happy  so- 
lution of  the  Scandinavian  question.  Norway  would  have 
become  one  in  language  with  Sweden  and  would  have  shared 
her  glorious  epoch  of  political  grandeur  which  was  to  follow. 
The  best  families  of  Norway  would  have  been  entered  side 
by  side  with  the  Swedish  nobility  at  the  knightly  chapter- 
bouse  of  Stockholm,  and  the  countries  would  have  bad  their 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  167 

later  democratic  and  cultural  development  in  common.  But 
King  Eric  was  too  restless  and  undecided  to  make  any  last- 
ing conquest,  or  union,  possible.  When  Claude  CoUard,  a 
young  French  nobleman,  who  was  the  conqueror  of  North- 
ern Norway,  was  taken  by  surprise  and  captured.  King 
Eric,  to  avenge  this,  devastated  forty  church  parishes  in 
Norway.  The  Danes  invaded  and  plundered  the  provinces 
of  West  Gothland  and  Smaland,  while  the  Swedes  pil- 
laged Bleking  and  Scania.  The  king  had  given  orders 
that  the  population  of  a  whole  district  should  be  killed.  He 
wrote  later  about  the  fulfilment  of  this  cruel  command: 
'*God  granted  luck,  so  that  thousands  of  men  were  killed 
on  the  road  and  in  the  woods."  The  province  of  Scania 
was  devastated  to  a  distance  of  one  hundred  miles  from  the 
Swedish  frontier.  A  new  invasion  into  Halland  was  made, 
in  1565,  when  Duke  Charles,  then  fifteen  years  of  age,  com- 
manded the  artillery.  The  town  of  Varberg  was  attacked, 
but  valiantly  defended  by  the  Danes.  The  young  duke  upon 
this  occasion  gave  the  first  proof  of  his  indomitable  energy. 
He  led  the  attack  and  persuaded  the  Swedes,  by  word  and 
action,  not  to  give  it  up.  At  last  the  walls  were  taken,  the 
town  being  pillaged  and  burned.  All  men  who  could  carry 
arms  were  killed,  except  a  force  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
men  of  hired  troops  who  entered  Swedish  service.  A  young 
French  captain,  Pontus  de  la  Gardie,  of  a  noble  family  of 
Languedoc,  was  among  the  latter.  This  man  and  his  de- 
scendants were  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in 
Swedish  history. 

Clas  Kristersson  Horn  was  made  commander  of  the 
Swedish  navy  after  Jacob  Bagge,  in  which  position  he  cov- 
ered his  name  with  glory.  He  won  a  naval  battle  at  OSland 
(in  1564)  which  lasted  for  two  days.     In  the  next  year  he 


168  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

added  several  victorious  battles  to  his  record,  among  which 
the  principal  ones  were  fought  at  Buchow,  by  the  coast  of 
Mecklenburg,  and  at  the  island  of  Bomholm.  When  he 
went  to  sea  in  the  spring  of  1566  no  enemy  dared  appear. 
The  united  fleets  of  Denmark  and  Lubeck  aj  last  started 
out,  but  were  defeated  by  Clas  Horn  at  the  island  of 
CEland  after  a  vehement  battle.  The  vanquished  fleets  were 
caught  in  a  gale  in  which  sixteen  ships  perished  with  seven 
thousand  men.  Clas  Horn  with  his  Swedish  fleet  was  mas- 
ter of  the  sea.  In  the  following  year  no  fleet  appeared  to 
meet  his.  The  efforts  of  Gustavus  I.  to  set  the  Swedish 
fleet  in  good  order  thus  proved  to  be  of  the  greatest  con- 
sequence. '  ^^  ^^^ 

The  Danes  were  superior  in  the  hostilities  on  land  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  war,  thanks  principally  to  their  emi- 
nent commander,  Daniel  Rantzau.  He  made  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  recapture  the  town  of  Varberg,  but  gained,  at 
Axtoma,  a  battle  over  a  superior  Swedish  army  (in  1665). 
When  Rantzau  saw  the  Swedes  approaching  for  an  attack, 
he  held  prayer  with  his  troops,  whereupon  he  arranged  them 
for  resistance.  The  Swedish  infantry  captured  the  Danish 
stronghold  and  artillery,  but  the  hired  German  troops  of  the 
Swedish  wings  turned  into  flight.  Rantzau  made  an  attack 
upon  the  deserted  infantry,  and  was  victorious  when  nightfall 
ended  the  battle.  The  Swedes  lost  thirty  cannon,  and  Nils 
Sture,  the  son  of  Count  Svante  Sture,  was  able  to  save  the 
banner  of  state  only  by  severing  it  from  the  pole  and  hiding 
it  on  his  person.  In  the  following  year,  Rantzau  pillaged 
Smaland  and  West  Gothland,  and  in  1567  he  penetrated  as 
far  as  East  Gothland,  where  he  was  very  near  being  caught 
in  a  trap  by  the  Swedish  troops.  The  interior  struggle  of 
Sweden  caused  hostilities  to  cease  for  some  time. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  169 

The  sad  fate  of  his  brother  Magnus  also  befell  King  Eric. 
Evidences  of  approaching  insanity  were  frequent  and  brought 
on  horrible  consequences.  By  Hcentiousness,  mysticism  and 
astrological  speculations  his  mind  became  unsettled.  It  had 
been  predicted  that  a  blond  man  would  dethrone  him.  Eric 
at  first  made  his  brother  John  the  subject  of  his  suspicions. 
After  the  duke's  imprisonment  he  suspected  a  rival  in  Nils 
Sture,  who  also  was  a  blond.  Eric  accused  him  of  ill  be- 
havior in  the  battle  of  Axtorna.  The  king's  court  sentenced 
him  to  death,  but  Lord  Nils  escaped  with  a  contumelious 
entry  of  mockery  into  Stockholm,  on  a  miserable  horse,  and 
a  crown  of  straw  on  his  head.  But  frightened  at  the  indig- 
nation aroused  by  his  shameful  act  the  king  tried  to  undo  it, 
and  sent  Lord  Nils  on  an  embassy  to  Lothringia,  to  bring 
the  king's  proposal  to  Princess  Renata. 

In  the  commencement  of  1567,  the  king  had  several  of 
the  nobles  arrested,  on  the  suspicion  of  conspiracy,  and  car- 
ried to  the  castle  of  Upsala,  where  a  Riksdag  was  convoked. 
Nils  Sture  arrived  with  the  consent  and  betrothal  ring  oi 
Princess  Renata,  but  was  thrown  into  prison.  The  king 
asked  the  Riksdag  to  pass  a  sentence  of  death  upon  the 
accused  nobles.  "When  this  was  refused,  he  was  seized  by 
fear  and  rage.  Rushing  into  the  prison  of  Nils  Sture,  he 
wounded  him  in  the  arm.  Lord  Nils  drew  out  the  weapon, 
a  dagger,  kissing  its  handle  and  returning  it  to  the  king, 
with  a  prayer  for  mercy,  but  was  killed  by  the  soldiers  at 
the  command  of  the  king.  Eric's  disposition  immediately 
was  changed,  and  he  darted  into  Count  Svante's  prison, 
begging  forgiveness  at  his  feet.  The  aged  Sture's  answer 
was  that  he  would  forgive  all,  granted  that  no  harm  was 
done  to  his  son.  The  king  fled  in  despair  from  the  castle 
and  town,  followed  by  some  of  his  soldiers,  one  oi  whom  he 

XX  8 


170  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

sent  back  with  an  order  to  kill  all  the  nobles,  "except  Lord 
Sten.'*  As  there  were  two  by  that  name,  these  were  spared, 
but  Count  Svante  and  his  son  Eric  Sture,  Abraham  Stenbock 
and  Ivar  Ivarsson  were  killed.  The  Riksdag  was  forced  to 
pass  sentence  for  high  treason  upon  the  murdered  men,  at 
the  instigation  of  Goeran  Persson,  whose  perfidious  advice 
had  continually  inflamed  the  sickened  brain  of  his  master. 
King  Eric  was  for  several  days  missing,  and  at  last  found 
wandering  about  in  a  peasant*s  garb.  Cared  for  by  Carin 
Monsdotter,  he  slowly  regained  his  reason,  showing  evidence 
of  repentance  by  declaring  the  murdered  nobles  innocent  and 
promising  to  compensate  their  families.  During  this  spell 
he  set  free  his  brother  John  and  dismissed  Goeran  Persson. 
But  soon  his  evil  disposition  returned,  and  the  resolution  of 
his  brothers  to  free  the  country  from  his  rule  must  be  ac- 
knowledged as  a  beneficent  one.  The  nobles  were  brought 
to  revolt,  when  Eric,  in  July,  1568,  proclaimed  Carin  as  his 
consort,  and  had  her  solemnly  crowned  Queen  of  Sweden. 
The  dukes  John  and  Charles  were  at  first  unsuccessful  in 
their  efforts,  the  king  defeating  their  troops  repeatedly. 
But  in  1569  Stockholm  was  captured,  Goeran  Persson  killed 
and  the  king  forced  to  abdicate.  The  sentence  passed  upon 
Eric,  by  the  Estates  of  the  Riksdag,  stipulated  that  he 
should  be  **  imprisoned,  but  sustained  in  a  princely  manner, 
for  the  rest  of  his  days." 

Eric  was  at  first  held  imprisoned  in  his  own  apartments 
at  the  royal  castle,  but  was  transferred  to  two  of  the  vaults, 
called  the  **  apartments  of  Lord  Eskil."  They  had  served  as 
a  treasury  during  the  reign  of  Gustavus  I.,  but  now  stood 
empty.  Queen  Carin  and  her  children  were  his  company. 
After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  flight,  one  room  was  taken 
away  from  him  and  the  windows  in  the  remaining  one  re- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  171 

duced  in  size.  The  table  of  the  royal  prisoner  was  well  pro- 
vided for,  but  he  was  unmercifully  treated  by  his  warders. 
The  cruel  Olof  Stenbock  once  deprived  him  of  all  his  clothes. 
In  a  struggle  which  followed,  he  shot  Eric  in  the  arm  and 
let  him  remain  senseless  in  his  blood  for  several  hours. 
Some  of  the  members  of  the  former  body-guard  of  Eric 
once  attempted,  but  in  vain,  to  set  free  the  unhappy  pris- 
oner. In  1669  Eric  was  removed  to  Abo  in  Finland,  where 
he  was  locked  up  in  a  secure  prison.  Two  years  later  he 
was  taken  to  Castellholm,  in  the  archipelago  of  Aland,  for 
fear  that  the  Russian  czar  would  liberate  him  by  violence. 
Shortly  afterward  he  was  removed  to  the  lovely  castle  of 
Gripsholm,  where  he  had  spent  some  of  the  happiest  days  of 
his  youth,  and  where  he  once  upon  a  time  held  his  brother 
John  imprisoned.  At  Gripsholm  there  is  a  gloomy  dungeon 
which  is  said  to  have  served  as  the  prison  of  King  Eric,  but 
this  is  not  authentic.  Eric  was  treated  comparatively  well 
while  at  Gripsholm,  enjoying  the  company  of  his  family,  a 
good  table  and  plenty  of  servants.  The  recording  books  of 
the  castle  from  this  period  speak  of  "the  court  of  King 
Eric."  King  John  was,  in  the  meantime,  irritated  by  Rus- 
sian hostiHties  and  intrigues,  the  old  supporters  of  Eric  join- 
ing in  the  latter.  The  appeals  of  Duke  Charles  for  the 
improvement  of  the  condition  of  his  poor  imprisoned 
brother  roused  the  suspicion  of  the  king,  who  fostered  dark 
plots  against  the  prisoner.  Eric  was  removed  from  Grips- 
holm and  its  pleasant  associations,  separated  from  his  fam- 
ily and  put  in  hard  prison  at  Westeros.  The  warders  re- 
ceived instructions  to  take  his  life  if  necessary.  The  state 
council  and  the  archbishop  sanctioned  this  order  of  the  king. 
The  last  prison  of  the  unhappy  King  Eric  was  CErbyhus, 
where  he  suddenly  died,  exactly  at  a  time  when  King  John's 


172  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

fears  of  a  revolt  had  reached  a  climax.  Rumors  that  Eric 
had  been  poisoned  were  current,  and  Duke  Charles  also  gave 
utterance  of  his  beHef  that  such  was  the  case.  In  spite  of 
the  wars,  cruelty  and  evil  deeds  of  King  Eric  XIV.,  the 
Swedish  people  of  his  time  had  a  good  deal  of  devotion  for 
him  and  his  faithful  consort.  The  country  enjoyed  good 
years  during  his  reign  and  profited  by  the  wise  measures 
of  his  father. 

Gustavus,  the  son  of  Eric  XIV.  and  Carin  Monsdotter, 
was  bom,  in  1568,  at  Nykoeping.  When  Queen  Carin  was 
separated  from  her  imprisoned  consort,  her  children,  Gus- 
tavus and  Sigrid,  followed  her  to  Finland,  where  she  re- 
sided at  Abo.  In  1575  the  young  prince  was  harshly  taken 
away  from  his  mother,  at  the  command  of  the  state  council, 
and  sent  to  Prussia.  The  jealous  and  uneasy  King  John 
made  him  the  subject  of  cruel  persecutions.  In  spite  of  these 
he  received  a  fine  education,  and  is  known  to  have  embraced 
the  CathoUc  religion.  He  was  kindly  received  by  King  Sig- 
ismund  of  Poland,  his  cousin,  at  whose  coronation  in  Cracow 
he  is  said  to  have  been  present,  in  the  disguise  of  a  beggar. 
A  relation  of  intimate  friendship  existed  between  the  out- 
lawed prince  and  Emperor  Rudolph  of  Austria,  both  of 
whom  were  devoted  to  the  study  of  alchemy.  King  John 
refused  to  listen  to  the  appeals  for  grace  and  support  which 
Gustavus  repeatedly  made  to  him.  Gustavus  was  not  al- 
lowed to  see  his  mother  imtil  the  year  of  1596,  when  the 
two  had  a  touching  meeting  at  Reval.  He  later  made  hia 
home  in  Thorn,  but  left  for  Russia,  in  1600,  upon  an  invi- 
tation from  Czar  Boris.  He  was  received  in  Moscow  as  a 
reigning  prince;  but  when  he  refused  to  appear  as  a  pre- 
tender to  the  Swedish  throne,  he  was  imprisoned.  At  the 
fall  of  Boris,  Gustavus  was  set  free,  but  again  put  in  prisor 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  173 

by  Dimitri.  At  the  fall  of  the  latter,  in  1607,  Gustavus  once 
more  regained  his  liberty,  but  died  in  Casijn,  in  the  same 
year.  This  unhappy  Gustavus  Ericsson  Vasa  was  a  man  of 
fine  erudition  and  pure  morals.  He  was  a  dreamer  and  of  a 
sensitive  disposition,  being  an  ardent  CathoHc  and  fondly 
devoted  to  the  country  which  had  outlawed  him. 

Sigrid  Vasa,  the  daughter  of  Eric  XIV.,  was  twice  mar- 
ried to  members  of  the  Swedish  nobility.  Ake  Henricsson 
Tott,  her  son  of  the  first  marriage,  was  a  distinguished  war- 
rior in  the  times  of  Gustavus  II.  Adolphus.  Queen  Carin 
died,  in  1612,  beloved  and  highly  respected,  at  the  beautiful 
estate  of  Liuksiala  in  Fialand,  given  her  in  fief  by  King 
John. 

John  III.  succeeded  Eric,  without  sharing  his  power 
with  his  younger  brother  Charles,  as  he  had  promised. 
John  was  as  learned  and  highly  talented  as  Eric,  and  as 
vain,  restless  and  unreliable.  But  while  Eric  was  a  mystic 
and  a  sceptic  by  turns,  John  was  a  CathoHc,  or  leaning  to- 
ward CathoHcism,  and  a  hypocrite  who,  under  the  pretence  of 
meekness  and  piety,  tried  to  hide  his  vanity,  bad  temper 
and  utter  selfishness.  Like  Gustavus  I.  and  all  his  other 
sons,  John  was  devoted  to  the  fine  arts,  particularly  to  archi- 
tecture, with  an  ardor  that  reached  the  vehemence  of  a  pas- 
sion. He  planned  a  vast  number  of  churches  and  castles, 
which  he  completed,  utterly  regardless  of  cost.  The  Swed- 
ish Castle  Renaissance  which  was  established  by  John  and 
his  brothers  is  influenced  by  contemporary  Flemish  art, 
severe  and  majestic  in  outline,  graceful  and  profuse  in  in- 
terior decoration.  Good  specimens  of  it  were  the  earlier 
castles  of  Stockholm  and  Svartsjoe,  the  castle  of  Vadstena 
remains  so  and,  to  a  great  extent,  the  beautiful  and  mem- 
orable castle  of  Gripsholm. 


J  74  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

At  his  coronation,  John  issued  hereditary  privileges  to 
the  nobility.  Russtjenst  became  no  longer  essential.  Legal 
offices  were  preserved  for  the  nobles,  the  king's  supreme 
court  being  abandoned.  John's  policy  was  to  win  the  sup- 
port of  the  aristocracy  against  Charles,  who,  indignant  and 
sulky,  kept  within  his  duchy,  consisting  of  the  provinces  of 
Scedermanland  and  Vermland,  with  the  town  of  CErebro  in 
addition. 

In  1570,  an  unsatisfactory  peace  was  made  with  Den- 
mark, Sweden  ceding  all  the  Norwegian  and  Danish  terri- 
tory in  her  possession,  together  with  the  island  of  Gothland, 
and  agreeing  to  pay  something  like  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  dollars  for  the  return  of  Elfsborg,  held  by  the 
Danes.  A  friendly  relation  to  hostile  Poland  commenced 
with  John's  reign,  but  a  long  and  bloody  war  with  Russia 
began  in  1570.  The  Russians  tried  repeatedly,  but  in  vain, 
to  capture  Reval,  plundering  and  killing  the  population  of 
Esthonia,  who  remained  faithful  to  Swedish  rule.  Henric 
Horn  and  Clas  Tott  won  laurels  for  their  heroic  deeds,  while 
the  war  was  changed  into  more  modem  methods  and  to  a 
successful  issue  by  the  Swedish  general  Pontus  de  la  Gardie, 
who  captured  the  provinces  Keksholm  and  Ingermanland 
and  the  town  of  Narva. 

John  III.  had  set  two  goals  for  his  ambition :  to  return  the 
Swedish  church  to  Catholicism  and  to  make  his  son  Sigis- 
mimd  king  of  Poland.  The  latter  he  reached  at  the  death 
of  King  Stephan  in  1589,  Sigismund  succeeding  him  upon 
the  throne.  The  former  ambition  John  never  attained, 
after  years  of  stubborn  and  unreasonable  perseverance  giv- 
ing up  this  pet  idea.  John  made  some  attempts  to  bring 
order  in  the  confused  conditions  of  the  church,  but  left  it  in 
a  worse  state  of  confusion  than  he  found  it.    The  crown  and 


HISTORY   OF    SWEDEN  175 

the  aristocracy  had  deprived  the  church  of  nearly  all  its 
property  and  withheld  its  income  from  it.  Archbishop 
Laurentius  Petri  complained  of  the  miserable  state  of 
things,  the  ministers  often*  being  useless  wretches  and  the 
service  in  some  churches  impossible  to  uphold  for  sheer  lack 
of  money.  In  1572  the  ecclesiastical  matters  were  arranged 
at  a  meeting  in  Upsala,  when  a  new  church  law  was  intro- 
duced, demanding  higher  qualifications  for  the  ministers, 
who  were  to  be  elected  by  their  congregations,  and  enforc- 
ing a  school  law.  Laurentius  Petri  died  in  1573  and  was 
succeeded  by  Laurentius  Petri  Gothus.  The  new  arch- 
bishop willingly  subscribed  to  a  set  of  rules,  laid  before 
him  by  the  king,  which  reintroduced  monasteries,  worship 
of  saints  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  Koman  church.  Jesuits 
were  invited  to  the  country,  but  met  with  little  encourage- 
ment from  the  people.  The  very  climax  of  John's  reaction- 
ary movements  was  formed  by  the  introduction  of  his  ritual, 
Liturgia,  which  was  nothing  else  than  an  adaptation  of  the 
Catholic  ritual.  It  was  accepted  by  the  Riksdag  of  1577, 
but  Charles  refused  to  accept  it  for  his  duchy.  The  king 
had  many  conflicts  with  his  brother,  the  latter  always  giv- 
ing in  to  his  wishes,  except  on  this  point.  Ministers  and 
university  professors  who  refused  to  conform  to  the  new 
ritual,  or  attacked  it,  were  sheltered  by  the  duke  and,  in 
many  instances,  given  high  offices.  The  king  grew  angry, 
but  the  duke  remained  firm  and  imyielding.  When  Queen 
Catherine  died,  in  1583,  John's  Catholic  fervor  suffered  a 
relapse,  and  ceased  altogether  after  his  marriage  to  young 
Protestant  Gunilla  Bielke,  in  the  following  yei-r.  He  stub- 
bornly stuck  to  his  Liturgia  for  some  time  yet,  but  exiled 
the  Jesuits,  and  dismissed  with  contumely  ministers  who 
had  joined  the  Roman  Church.     During  the  last  years  of 


176  HISTORY    OF  SWEDEN 

his  reign,  he  said  it  was  best  to  leave  everybody  a  free 
choice  in  religious  matters,  regretting  his  Liturgia — which 
he  once  considered  the  gem  of  his  own  theological  system 
— because  it  had  caused  so  much  trouble  and  confusion. 

Sweden  suffered  a  great  deal  through  the  slack  and 
unsteady  government  of  King  John.  He  spent  unreason- 
able sums  on  his  court  and  his  craze  for  architectural  mar- 
vels, while  always  short  of  funds  for  the  necessities  of  war 
and  internal  improvements.  Commerce  and  industries  suf- 
fered and  were  brought  to  a  standstill  by  dearth,  hunger  and 
pest.  The  population  decreased;  the  towns  were  made 
bankrupt  and  many  farms  abandoned.  Bad  and  greedy 
officials  and  the  recommencing  war  with  Kussia  increased 
the  evils.  After  unsuccessful  attempts  to  have  his  son  leave 
Poland,  where  he  had  met  with  many  difficulties,  John  en- 
tered into  more  intimate  relations  with  his  brother,  who 
came  to  wield  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  government. 
John  III.  died  1692,  malcontent  and  tired  of  life,  his  death 
being  little  regretted  by  the  people. 

One  of  the  most  famous  love  episodes  of  Sweden  dates 
from  the  reign  of  John  III.  It  has  no  bearing  upon  the 
affairs  of  state,  but  is  not  devoid  of  value  as  an  illustration 
of  the  history  of  civilization,  giving  us  a  glimpse  of  the  pri- 
vate life  of  the  nobles  of  that  period  and  the  standard  of 
morals  of  their  lives.  The  episode  is  told  by  Countess  Anne 
Ban^r  in  a  manuscript  by  her  hand  with  the  title:  **In  the 
following  manner  my  blessed  mother's  sister,  Lady  Sigrid 
Stiire,  lady  of  Salestad  and  Geddeholm,  related  what  took 
place  when  Lord  Eric  Gustafson  Stenbock  carried  away 
our  blessed  mother's  sister,  Magdalen  Sture,  from  Hoem- 
Ingsholm." 

The  dowager-countess,  Martha  Sture,  resided  at  the  can- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  177 

tie  of  Hoemingsholm,  enlarged  to  a  four-story  structure  and 
fortified  with  four  corner  towers  by  her  consort.  She  was 
a  sister  of  Queen  Margaret,  the  second  queen  of  Gustavua 
I.,  and  was  married  to  the  renounced  lover  of  that  sister, 
Count  Svante  Sture.  The  countess  was  called  *'King  Mar- 
tha," partly  because  of  her  stern  power  and  great  authority, 
partly  because  it  was  known  to  have  been  her  ambition  to 
see  her  husband's  family  grace  the  throne  of  a  country 
which  their  forefathers  had  ruled  as  uncrowned  kings.  She 
had  lived  to  see  her  husband  and  two  sons  killed  by  the 
insane  Eric  XIV.,  but  she  had  yet  two  sons  who  would 
carry  high  the  glorious  name,  on  which  there  was  not  a 
stain  of  any  kind.  There  were  five  daughters,  Sigrid  and 
Anne,  married  to  members  of  the  influential  Bielke  family, 
and  Magdalen,  Margaret  and  Christine,  as  yet  unmarried. 
There  was  another  young  lady  at  Hcerningsholm,  besides 
the  daughters,  the  little  Princess  Sigrid  Vasa,  the  daughter 
of  King  Eric  XIV.  and  Carin  Monsdotter,  who  had  received 
a  home  with  the  stern  *'King  Martha"  while  her  mother 
was  following  the  tracks  of  the  deposed  monarch  from 
prison  to  prison. 

Between  Magdalen  Sture  and  Lord  Eric  Stenbock  a  pas- 
sionate love  sprang  up.  Lord  Eric  was  a  very  fine  young 
man,  of  an  influential  family  and  the  brother  of  the  queen- 
dowager,  Catherine,  third  consort  of  Gustavus  I.  But,  un- 
fortunately, he  was  the  nephew  of  Countess  Martha,  and, 
as  a  cousin  of  Magdalen,  considered  to  be  too  closely  related 
to  her  to  make  a  marriage  possible.  Countess  Martha  was 
unwilling  to  listen  to  any  appeals,  and  she  was  strengthened 
in  her  resolution  by  the  old  Archbishop  Laurentius  Petri, 
who  still  held  the  same  opinions  as  when  he,  once  upon  a 
time,  refused  to  grant  his  consent  to  a  marriage  between 


178  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

King  Gostavns  I.  and  young  Lord  Eric's  sister,  because 
she  was  a  niece  of  Queen  Margaret.  The  years  passed  by, 
but  no  change  came  in  the  stubborn  resistance  of  **King 
Martha."  Christmas  eve  of  1673,  Lord  Eric  visited  Hcem- 
mgsholm  to  remain  until  New  Year.  He  brought  with  him 
costly  presents  which  he  offered  as  New  Year's  gifts  to 
Countess  Martha,  her  daughters,  chaplain  and  servants. 
He  left  to  return  on  Palm  Sunday  with  his  sister  Cecilia, 
the  wife  of  Count  Gustavus  Tre  Rosor.  One  morning  a  few 
days  later.  Lady  Sigrid  Bielke,  who  was  visiting  her  moth- 
er, entered  the  so-called  rotunda,  a  large  room  in  one  of  the 
towers  which  Countess  Martha  and  her  daughters  used  as 
sleeping  apartment.  She  was  surprised  to  find  her  sister 
Magdalen  kneeling  and  in  tears.  Lady  Sigrid  greeted  her: 
'*God  bless  you,  you  have  a  good  deed  in  mind  I"  **God 
grant  it  were  good,"  answered  Magdalen,  rising.  "Cer- 
tainly it  is  good  to  make  one's  prayers  amid  tears,"  Sigrid 
said.  Magdalen  caught  the  hands  of  her  sister  and  said: 
**My  darling  sister,  if  all  the  rest  forsake  me,  you  will  not 
turn  away  your  faithful  heart  from  me."  Sigrid  found  the 
words  and  emotion  of  her  sister  strange,  but  did  not  suspect 
anything.  "Why  do  you  use  such  words  to  me?"  she  an- 
swered. **I  do  not  believe  that  you  are  going  to  make  an 
evil-doer  out  of  yourself;  there  are  none  in  the  Sture  family 
who  have  carried  themselves  in  a  way  to  make  us  turn  oup 
hearts  away  from  them."  Tears  came  again  to  the  eyes 
of  Magdalen,  but  Sigrid  was  called  into  an  interior  room  by 
her  mother.  Magdalen  went  to  play  with  one  of  her  little 
nieces,  when  Lord  Eric  entered.  "Dear  lady,"  he  said, 
"would  you  hke  to  see  the  horse  that  I  have  given  you? 
It  is  now  waiting  in  the  court."  Magdalen  rose  and  left, 
escorted  by  her  cousin.     They  met  two  of  the  women  of  the 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  179 

household,  whom  Eric  commanded  to  follow  them.  A  horse 
and  sleigh  stood  in  the  vaulted  entrance.  Magdalen  was 
placed  between  the  two  servants,  while  Eric  took  his  position 
back  of  them  on  the  runners,  holding  the  reins.  In  the  castle 
court  they  met  the  chaplain  and  several  of  the  servants,  who 
thought  it  a  pleasure  ride  and  let  them  pass.  When  they 
rode  down  on  the  frozen  lake,  the  two  servants  in  the  sleigh 
grasped  the  importance  of  the  situation  for  the  first  time, 
and  commenced  prayin^j  Lady  Magdalen  to  return.  Lord 
Eric  silenced  them  by  displaying  his  short  musket.  A  few 
moments  later  they  were  surrounded  by  a  force  of  one  hun- 
dred men  on  horseback,  who  formed  an  escort.  They  were 
a  loan  to  Lord  Eric  by  Duke  Charles. 

The  excitement  at  Hoerningsholm  was  great  when  the 
elopement  was  discovered.  Margaret  Sture  happened  to 
look  through  the  window  at  the  moment  when  the  sleigh 
reached  the  lake.  At  her  outcry  Countess  Martha  and 
Sigrid  joined  her.  The  old  countess  fainted  on  the  stairs 
when  making  for  the  court,  and  Sigrid  was  ordered  to  fol- 
low up  the  eloping  couple.  Countess  Cecilia  found  her  aunt 
on  the  stairs  and  hastened  to  assure  her  of  the  mortification 
that  she  felt  at  the  daring  and  unsuspected  deed  of  her 
brother,  also  expressing  some  surprise  at  the  bad  manner 
in  which  it  was  accepted.  But  then  the  old  countess  be- 
came wroth,  exclaiming:  **Go  to  the  devil,  and  may  God 
punish  both  you  and  your  brother!  And  if  you  have  any 
part  in  his  scheme  of  robbing  me  of  my  dear  child,  be- 
take yourself  after  him,  so  that  no  shame  or  dishonor  may 
happen."  Countess  Cecilia  hastened  to  her  sleigh  and 
reached  Svserdsbro,  where  her  brother  was  stopping,  ahead 
of  Sigrid. 

When  Lady  Sigrid  arrived  at  Svserdsbro,  she  was  ad- 


180  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

mitted  through  the  lines  of  soldiers  only  after  some  diffi- 
ciilty,  finding  tailors  and  seamsters  busy  cutting  and  sewing 
precious  stuffs  for  clothing  for  Lady  Magdalen  and  her  ser- 
vants, **for  she  left  with  uncovered  head  such  as  she  went 
and  stood  in  her  mother's  house."  Sigrid  tried  to  persuade 
her  sister  to  return  to  her  mother,  who  in  her  great  sorrow 
was  willing  to  forgive  all  if  she  only  came  back.  Magdalen 
sat  silent  for  a  long  time.  Finally  she  said:  **If  you  can 
vouchsafe  me,  that  the  lady,  my  mother,  will  grant  that 
we  shall  belong  to  each  other,  since  I  have  so  dearly  pledged 
myself  to  him,  I  shall  return."  This  Sigrid  could  not  do, 
and  Magdalen  added,  weeping  screly:  **The  last  complica- 
tion is  then  as  bad  as  the  first."  Lord  Eric  entered  with 
his  sister  Cecilia.  When  Sigrid  asked  where  he  intended 
to  bring  Magdalen,  he  answered:  "To  Visingsoe,  to  the 
Countess  Beatrix,  my  s'ster,  wtere  she  shall  remain  until  we 
obtain  the  consent  to  laarry  of  the  lady,  her  mother."  It 
was  arranged  that  Cecil  ia  should  accompany  Magdalen,  and 
Sigrid  try  her  best  to  win  ^er  mother's  consent.  Magdalen 
sent  home  to  her  mother  a  piece  of  horn  of  the  fabulous 
unicorn;  "the  only  thing  I  have  carried  with  me  from  my 
father's  house,"  she  added.  This  horn,  which  really  was 
taken  from  the  incisor  of  the  narwhal,  was  in  those  days 
generally  thought  to  be  authentic  and  of  miraculous  power. 
Countess  Martha  was,  in  her  grief  and  dismay,  taken  ill. 
She  soon  gathered  strength  enough  to  write  to  King  John, 
her  nephew,  pleading  her  cause.  King  John  at  once  took 
action  in  the  matter,  calling  Lord  Eric  to  account,  and  issu- 
ing a  command  to  all  ministers  of  the  kingdom,  prohibiting 
them  to  unite  in  marriage  the  two  cousins.  Eric  Stenbock 
was  on  his  way  to  Stockholm  when  he  received  the  order 
of  the  king.     Upon  his  arrival  at  the  capital,  he  was  impris- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  181 

oned  and  deprived  of  all  his  offices.  But  Lord  Ehric  had 
powerful  friends  in  Duke  Charles  and  the  Stenbock  family. 
As  the  king  himself  did  not  wish  to  be  without  his  service, 
he  was  soon  set  free  and  reinstalled  in  his  offices.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  goodwill  of  the  whole  Sture  family, 
but  **King  Martha"  remained  irreconcilable.  More  than 
a  year  had  passed  since  the  elopement.  One  day  Lord  Eric 
suddenly  appeared  at  the  castle  of  Visingsoe.  He  made, 
with  Magdalen  and  his  aunt,  Lady  Anne,  a  journey  into 
the  province  of  Halland,  where  a  Danish  minister  joined  the 
two  cousins  in  marriage.  The  wedding  was  celebrated 
at  the  home  of  Eric's  father.  Baron  Gustavus  Stenbock 
of  Torpa.  But  Lady  Magdalen  was  not  happy.  She 
grieved  because  of  her  mother's  hostile  attitude,  and  con- 
tinued to  dress  in  black  colors,  as  she  had  done  ever  since 
she  left  her  mother.  Duke  Charles,  the  queen-dowager, 
the  royal  princesses,  and  all  the  members  of  the  state  coun- 
cil, yea,  the  king  himself,  wrote  letters  to  the  indignant 
countess,  whose  ire  was  rather  increased  than  diminished 
thereby. 

Finally,  after  another  year  and  a  half ,  **King  Martha" 
gave  in  to  the  tears  and  prayers  of  her  daughters.  Lady 
Magdalen  returned  to  Hcerningsholm  after  three  years  of 
absence.  She  was  not  allowed  to  come  up  to  the  castle 
at  first,  but  had  to  dwell  in  the  building  occupied  by  the 
baths.  As  the  winter  was  approaching,  and  Lady  Mag- 
dalen was  soon  to  give  life  to  a  child,  her  brothers  and  sis- 
ters prevailed  upon  their  mother  to  receive  Lord  Eric  and 
his  wife  at  the  castle.  The  event  was  arranged  in  a  con- 
spicuous way.  Countess  Martha  was  seated  in  the  place 
of  honor  in  the  great  hall  of  the  castle,  surrounded  by  her 
daughters  and  sons-in-law,  when  Lord  Eric  entered  with 


182  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Magdalen.  When  the  mother  saw  her  pale  and  thin  feat- 
ures, she  was  moved  to  tears,  exclaiming:  "Thou  unhappy 
child!*'  Magdalen  approached  her  on  her  knees,  and  the 
countess  embraced  her,  stammering  her  forgiveness  between 
tears.  Magdalen  remained  at  the  castle,  where  she  bore  her 
husband  a  son,  who  was  called  Gustavus.  Lady  Martha 
invited  the  king,  the  duke  and  the  princesses  to  be  present 
at  the  baptism,  at  the  same  time  granting  Magdalen  an 
equal  share  of  inheritance  with  the  other  daughters.  Lady 
Magdalen  continued  to  dress  in  mourning  as  a  self-imposed 
punishment  for  her  disobedience  to  her  mother.  One  day 
she  was  preparing  to  leave  for  a  wedding,  when  her  mother 
asked  her  the  reason  why  she  dressed  thus.  When  **King 
Martha**  learned  why,  she  took  a  costly  cross  of  diamonds 
intended  for  the  bride  and  placed  it  on  her  daughter's 
breast,  telling  her  to  put  aside  her  black  dresses.  From 
that  day  joy  and  happiness  seemed  to  return  to  Lady  Mag- 
dalen, who  commenced  to  put  on  lighter  colors  and  to  wear 
diamonds.  Of  Magdalen  Stenbock — a  child  of  these  Stures, 
who  so  often  had  protected  and  preserved  Sweden — Count 
Magnus  Stenbock  was  a  lineal  descendant,  he  who  during 
the  reign  of  Charles  XII.  saved  his  country  in  the  hour  of 
its  greatest  peril  and  distress. 

Sigismundj  the  son  and  successor  of  John  III.,  was  not 
apt  to  become  more  popular  than  his  father.  Born  at  the 
pleasant  prison  of  Gripsholm,  which  yet  was  a  prison,  he  was 
of  a  cold,  unsympathetic  disposition,  a  king  of  few  words 
and  hard  to  approach.  At  John's  death,  Sigismund  was 
twenty-six  years  of  age  and  had  reigned  several  years  in 
Poland.  Charles  stepped  to  the  front  as  the  head  of  the 
government  until  Sigismund*s  arrival. 

The  Protestants,  fearing  the  worst  from  their  new  Cath- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  183 

olic  king,  decided  to  take  firm  and  early  action.  The  duke 
ordered  a  Riksdag  at  Upsala  in  February,  1593,  the  delib- 
erations being  held  by  the  clergy  alone.  The  Liturgia  was 
abolished  with  the  majority  of  Catholic  church  ceremonies, 
Luther's  catechisms,  L.  Petri's  ritual,  church  visitations, 
etc.,  being  reintroduced.  Abraham  Angermannus  was 
elected  archbishop,  and  decision  made  for  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  Upsala  University.  The  duke  had  not  been 
present  at  the  deliberations,  and  appeared  displeased  because 
not  consulted.  He,  who  was  secretly  accused  of  being  a 
Calvinist,  pointed  out  more  Catholic  ceremonies  to  be  abol- 
ished, whereupon  the  decisions  won  the  sanction  of  the  duke, 
the  state  council  and  the  bishops.  By  this  act  the  Lutheran 
Church  was  re-established,  the  Augsburgian  Confession 
being  laid  down  by  the  meeting  as  its  corner-stone.  When 
this  action  had  been  taken,  the  chairman,  Nicolaus  Both- 
niensis,  a  young  Upsala  professor,  exclaimed:  ^^Now  Sweden 
has  become  one  man,  and  we  all  have  one  God." 

In  August,  1593,  King  Sigismund  arrived  in  Sweden, 
surrounded  by  Jesuits  and  Polish  nobles,  and  with  a  sum 
of  money  wherewith  to  pay  the  expenses  of  a  Catholic 
revival.  To  the  demands  made  to  sign  the  decisions  of  the 
Upsala  meeting  he  gave  a  flat  refusal.  The  conditions  in 
Stockholm  grew  perilous,  Jesuits  and  Lutheran  ministers 
preaching  denouncements  upon  each  other  in  the  churches 
and  conflicts  between  the  PoUsh  troops  and  the  populace 
taking  place.  In  January,  1594,  Sigismund,  accompanied 
by  the  state  councillors  and  the  members  of  the  Riksdag, 
came  to  Upsala  for  his  father's  funeral  and  his  own  corona- 
tion. Duke  Charles  arrived  with  3,000  men,  whom  he  quar- 
tered in  the  neighborhood.  He  dismissed  the  papal  legate, 
Malaspina,  and  his  Jesuits  from  the  funeral  procession,  be- 


184  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

fore  it  entered  the  cathedral,  and  told  the  king,  in  behalf 
of  all,  that  no  coronation  would  take  place  before  the  con- 
fessional liberty  of  the  Lutheran  Church  was  confirmed. 
The  Estates  declared  themselves  ready  to  sacrifice  their  lives 
for  the  pure  faith.  The  king  still  refused  his  sanction, 
whereupon  the  duke  replied  that  the  Riksdag  would  be  dis- 
missed within  twenty-four  hours  if  he  insisted.  Sigismund 
gave  in,  upon  the  advice  of  the  Jesuits,  who  told  him  that 
pledges  to  Lutherans  were  not  binding.  Sigismund  was 
crowned  and  returned  suddenly  to  Poland. 

The  king  had  left  matters  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition, 
placing  six  governors  with  great  authority  in  various  dis- 
tricts, but  leaving  the  government  to  be  conducted  by  the 
duke  and  the  state  council  in  common.  This  little  pleased 
the  energetic  Charles,  who  soon  called  a  Riksdag  at  Soeder- 
koeping,  in  1595,  forcing  the  councillors  to  sanction  this  act 
and  follow  him  to  the  Riksdag.  In  Finland,  the  governor, 
Clas  Fleming,  had  tried  to  have  a  peace  agreement  with 
Russia  postponed  as  an  excuse  to  keep  the  navy  and  army 
at  his  disposal  in  the  interest  of  the  king.  At  Soederkoep- 
ing,  Charles  had  himself  chosen  regent,  the  last  vestige 
of  Catholicism  abolished,  and  the  punishment  of  Fleming 
decided  on.  In  consequence,  the  Catholics  were  dealt  with 
in  a  merciless  way  through  the  instigation  of  the  arch- 
bishop, whom  the  duke  called  an  executioner  on  account 
of  his  recklessness.  The  convent  of  Vadstena  was  closed, 
its  eleven  nuns  scattered  and  its  property  confiscated.  In 
Finland  a  bloody  revolt  against  the  oppression  of  Fleming 
cost  11,000  people  their  lives.  It  was  called  the  "War 
of  Clubs,"  on  account  of  the  rude  weapons  used  by  the 
peasants.  The  state  council  refused  to  consent  to  Fleming's 
punishment,  whereupon  the  duke  suddenly  resigned.     But 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  186 

he  convoked  a  Eiksdag  at  Arboga,  in  1597,  at  which  the 
councillors  and  nobles  were  absent,  also  the  burghers.  The 
peasants  and  clergy  were  abundantly  represented  and 
cheered  the  propositions  of  the  duke  to  the  echo.  It  was 
then  decided  that  the  king  should  be  asked  to  return,  until 
which  event  the  duke  was  to  remain  regent,  and  that  peace 
should  be  restored  in  Finland.  Fleming  died  in  the  mean- 
time and  was  succeeded  by  Arvid  Stolarm,  who  also  was  one 
of  the  duke's  enemies.  The  Riksdag  at  Arboga  was  the 
first  in  the  deliberations  of  which  the  state  council  had  not 
taken  a  part.  The  councillors  were  disposed  to  punish  the 
duke ;  but,  not  agreeing  as  to  means,  they  left  the  country 
to  seek  the  king. 

King  Sigismund  arrived  in  the  summer  of  1698  with  an 
army  of  6,000  Poles,  gathering  a  good  deal  of  strength  by 
reinforcements  from  Gothaland.  The  duke  had  his  strong- 
hold in  Svealand,  the  Dalecarlians  rising  to  join  him.  The 
Uplanders  warded  off  an  attempt  made  by  Stolarm  to  land 
with  his  army;  they  were  led  by  Nicolaus  Bothniensis,  the 
Upsala  professor,  who  called  his  exploit  "a  crusade.**  The 
two  princes  met  in  East  Gothland,  near  Stegeborg.  The 
duke  and  his  peasant  army  were  surrounded  by  the  king's 
cavalry,  and  would  have  been  doomed  if  not  for  the  out- 
cry of  one  of  the  king's  followers  that  his  subjects  would 
be  killed  on  either  side.  The  king  gave  order  to  stop  the 
attack,  feeling  pity  at  the  sight.  The  duke  was  deeply 
moved  by  this  act  and  offered  to  leave  the  land  with  his 
family.  But  the  deliberations  which  followed  were  with- 
out result. 

On  the  26th  of  September  a  battle  was  fought  at 
Stongebro,  near  Linkceping,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  the 
royal  army.     An  armistice  followed.      The  conditions  of 


J  86  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

peace  were  that  the  king  should  remain  in  Sweden,  dismiss- 
ing his  foreign  troops,  and  take  charge  of  the  government. 
No  one  should  be  punished  except  five  of  the  nobles,  to  be 
placed  before  a  jury  of  ambassadors.  The  king  agreed 
to  the  conditions,  but  soon  left  Sweden  never  to  return.  A 
meeting  of  nobles  and  clergymen,  in  1599,  accepted  him 
as  reigning  king  if  willing  to  return  within  four  months. 
In  July,  a  Riksdag  was  called  at  Stockholm,  which  declared 
Sigismund  dethroned  and  his  son  Vladislav  king  if  sent 
to  Sweden  to  be  educated  in  the  Lutheran  faith.  Sigis- 
mund took  no  heed  of  these  stipulations,  planning  to  regain 
his  throne  by  force. 

Charles  followed  up  the  punishment  with  such  unprece- 
dented severity  that  it  has  left  a  stain  upon  his  memory. 
Three  nobles  were  beheaded  after  Kalmar  was  taken,  and 
proceeding  to  Finland,  the  duke  applied  capital  punishment 
to  a  wide  extent,  in  more  than  twenty  cases  at  Abo  alone. 
At  a  Riksdag  in  Linkoeping,  in  1600,  the  duke  appeared  as 
an  accuser  against  the  five  imprisoned  nobles  and  several 
others,  eight  state  councillors  being  among  them.  The 
accused,  thirteen  in  number,  were  sentenced  to  death  for 
high  treason,  but  the  majority  were  pardoned  upon  confes- 
sion of  guilt.  The  councillors  Gustavus  Ban^r,  Eric  Sparre, 
Sten  Baner  and  Ture  Bielke  were  beheaded.  They  were  all 
men  of  learning  and  great  ability,  who  had  faithfully  served 
their  king.  During  John's  reign  they  had  already  suffered 
years  of  imprisonment  for  intrigues  against  a  hereditary 
kingdom  and  a  strong  government. 

Charles  IX.  was  chosen  king  at  the  bloody  Riksdag  of 
Linkoeping,  and  his  son  Gustavus  Adolphus  heir-apparent. 
The  hereditary  rights  of  Duke  John,  second  son  of  John 
III.,  were  acknowledged,  and  a  duchy,  consisting  of  East 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  187 

Gothland  and  Leckoe  Castle,  granted  him;  but  he  was 
passed  over  as  too  young  and  too  closely  related  to  Sigis- 
mund.  Measures  to  strengthen  the  financial  administration 
and  the  army  were  passed. 

Sigismund  prepared,  by  alliances  with  Catholic  powers, 
to  gather  support,  Charles  turning  to  England  and  France 
for  the  same  purpose.  A  conflict  was  unavoidable,  and 
Charles  decided  to  invade  the  disputed  province  of  Livonia, 
which  he  captured,  only  to  be  ousted  by  the  Polish  general, 
Zamoisky.  The  castle  of  Volmar  was  long  and  heroically 
defended  by  the  Swedes  under  Jacob  de  la  Gardie,  a  son  of 
General  Pontus,  and  Charles  Gyllenhielm,  an  illegitimate 
son  of  Charles  IX.  After  their  surrender  the  former  re- 
ceived for  five  years  a  tolerable  treatment,  the  latter  a  most 
severe  one  for  twelve  years.  After  attempts  to  place  con- 
ditions on  a  better  footing  in  Finland,  where  the  peasants 
had  long  suffered  through  aristocratic  oppression,  Charles 
increased  the  army  still  further  and  invaded  Livonia  once 
more,  in  1604.  He  met  with  a  crushing  defeat  at  Kerkholm, 
close  by  Riga,  at  the  hands  of  the  Pole,  Chodkiewitz, 
losing  9,000  men.  But  the  Poles  did  not  understand  how 
to  use  their  victory,  and  the  centre  of  the  conflict  changed 
to  Russia. 

On  Russian  territory,  the  troops  of  Sigismund  and 
Charles  were  to  meet.  The  line  of  Rurik  became  extinct 
in  1598,  its  last  descendant,  Dimitri,  being  murdered. 
Great  complications  ensued  with  usurpers  and  two  "false 
Dimitris'*  in  succession.  Sigismund  supported  the  false 
Dimitris  in  order  to  gain  ground  and  place  the  royal  line 
of  Yasa  upon  the  throne  of  Russia  after  that  of  Rurik. 
Charles  sided  with  Vassili  Schuisky  against  the  second  false 
Dimitri.     In  1607  an  agreement  was  made  that  Sweden, 


^88  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

upon  the  receipt  of  the  province  of  Kexholm,  should  send 
an  army  to  Russia  to  support  Czar  Vassili.  In  1609,  a 
small  Swedish  army,  consisting  of  Swedes,  Finns  and  some 
hired  troops,  entered  Russia,  under  command  of  Jacob  de 
la  Qardie.  It  was  received  at  Novgorod  with  the  blaze 
of  cannon  and  tolling  of  church  bells.  A  victory  was  won 
at  Tver  over  the  pretender,  but  further  progress  was  im- 
peded by  mutiny  among  the  hired  troops,  the  stubborn 
Finns  returning  home.  With  his  1,200  faithful  Swedes, 
reinforced  by  hired  troops  to  5,000,  De  la  Gardie  made  a 
daring  march  eastward  to  Moscow,  scaring  away  the  Polish 
army,  attacking  it  and  making  a  triumphant  entry  into  the 
Russian  capital.  Sigismund  was  at  Smolensk,  and  met 
De  la  Gardie  at  Klusina,  winning  the  battle  on  account  of 
renewed  mutiny  of  the  hired  troops  in  the  Swedish  army. 
De  la  Gardie  was  given  free  leave  with  400  men,  upon 
pledge  not  to  support  Czar  Vassili,  and  later  captured  the 
promised  Kexholm,  while  Sigismund  *s  son  Vladislav  for 
a  short  time  became  czar  of  Russia. 

Although  the  short  reign  of  Charles  IX.  was  filled  with 
continual  warfare,  the  king  never  for  a  moment  lost  interest 
in  the  peaceful  development  of  the  coimtry.  He  continued 
his  father's  work  in  furthering  the  mining  industry,  and 
tried  to  build  up  the  commerce  and  trade  relations.  He 
founded  the  city  of  Gothenburg,  on  the  western  coast,  in 
the  island  of  Hising,  opposite  Elfsborg,  also  founding  the 
towns  of  Karlstad,  Christinehamn,  Mariestad  and  Philip- 
stad.  The  aristocracy  looked  upon  his  administration  with 
coldness.  It  received  sanction  of  the  privileges  granted  by 
John  III.,  but  nothing  more,  except  in  return  for  additional 
russtjenst.  The  peasants  were  his  favorites  and  he  was 
sumamed  the  "Peasant  King."     To  the  Church,  Charles 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  189 

stood  in  a  good  relation,  supporting  its  re-established  Ref- 
ormation with  his  whole  authority.  Also  the  University 
had  in  him  a  patron,  although  he  severely  criticised  the 
too  conservative  spirit  in  both,  exchanging  a  series  of  pam- 
phlets with  the  archbishop  on  theological  questions,  firm 
in  his  Calvinistic  tendencies.  To  make  the  government 
stronger  it  was  stipulated  that  four  members  of  the  state 
council  were  always  to  hold  the  four  principal  offices,  with 
the  titles  of  drotsete,  kansler  (chancellor),  admiral  and  treas- 
urer. The  greatest  economy  was  enforced  at  court  and 
throughout  the  whole  system  of  government,  various  minor 
country  offices  being  established  for  the  enforcement  of 
order,  justice  and  economy.  The  king  was  liberal  only 
with  severe  orders  and  harsh  words,  the  artistic  tendencies 
of  his  youth  succumbing  to  the  cruel  necessities  of  his 
reign. 

In  private  he  was  as  severe  as  in  public  life.  His  first 
consort,  Maria  of  the  Palatinate-Zweibrucken,  had  a  quiet- 
ing influence  upon  him,  but  the  second,  Christine  of  Hol- 
stein,  stern  and  sharp  Uke  the  king,  strengthened  the  harsh- 
ness and  violence  of  his  disposition.  During  the  last  years 
of  his  reign,  Charles  gave  his  attention  to  the  critical  Eu- 
ropean situation,  desiring  to  join  the  Netherlands,  England, 
France  and  the  Protestant  German  princes  into  an  alliance 
against  the  forming  Catholic  league.  This  man,  so  assured 
of  his  power  to  reign  and  so  unscrupulous  as  to  his  means, 
was  very  careful  not  to  do  any  act  of  importance  without 
the  sanction  of  his  people,  and  for  a  long  time  refused  to  be 
called  king.  In  1604  he  agreed  to  accept  that  name,  but 
was  in  1606  ready  to  cede  it  to  Duke  John.  Still,  after  his 
coronation  he  admitted  the  hereditary  right  of  his  nephew, 
who  was  a  good-natured  man  without  the  qualifications 


190  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

of  a  ruler.  At  the  Riksdag  of  NorrkcBping,  in  1604,  the 
crown  was  made  hereditary  among  the  descendants  of 
Charles,  also  in  the  female  line,  provided  that  the  monarch 
confessed  the  Lutheran  faith  and  had  not  accepted  the  gov- 
ernment of,  or  residence  in,  any  other  country. 

The  stress  placed  upon  Charles  was  greater  than  his 
originally  strong  health  could  carry.  In  1609  he  suffered  a 
stroke  of  paralysis,  which  deprived  him  of  his  full  power  of 
speech.  He  still  stood  firm  at  the  head  of  the  government, 
with  Prince  Gustavus  Adolphus,  now  sixteen  years  of  age, 
at  his  side,  who  took  part  in  the  affairs  of  State  and  spoke 
for  the  paralytic  king.  The  young  and  ambitious  Christian 
IV.  of  Denmark  thought  that  the  opportune  moment  was 
come  to  turn  down  the  rising  power  of  Sweden.  He  de- 
clared war,  in  April,  1611,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  made  by 
King  Charles  to  avoid  the  conflict,  pointing  to  Germany, 
where  their  joined  forces  would  be  needed.  Christian  cap- 
tured the  town  of  Kalmar,  while  its  castle  withstood  his 
attacks,  being  handed  over  to  him  by  treason.  In  his  wrath 
and  disgust,  Charles  sent  word  to  Christian  to  meet  him 
in  a  duel  face  to  face,  which  the  latter  refused  to  do  in  a 
letter  of  abusive  contempt.  Gustavus  Adolphus  had  made 
a  dash  into  Bleking,  capturing  the  store  of  provisions  at 
Christianopel.  In  the  autumn,  the  war  came  to  a  tem- 
porary standstill. 

Charles  started  for  Stockholm  from  Kalmar,  but  was 
taken  ill  during  the  journey  and  died  at  Nykoeping,  October 
11,  1611,  surrounded  by  his  sons  and  councillors.  To  his 
death-bed  came  the  news  that  Jacob  de  la  Gardie  had  cap- 
tured the  important  city  of  Novgorod,  and  that  the  Russians 
offered  the  crown  to  either  of  his  sons,  Gustavus  Adolphus 
or  Charles  Philip.     With  Charles  died  the  only  worthy  son 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  191 

of  Gustavus  I.  Vasa.  In  strength  of  intellect  and  stern 
power,  he  stands  first  among  Swedish  rulers.  Devoted 
to  the  work  of  his  great  father,  he  educated  the  Swedish 
people,  through  hardships  and  sacrifices,  to  its  political 
grandeur. 


CHAPTER  X 
Period  of  Political  Grandeur — Gustavua  11.  Adolphus 

GUSTAVUS  II.  ADOLPHUS  is  the  greatest  figure 
of  Swedish  history,  revered  and  beloved  as  one  of 
the  noblest  of  heroes,  a  genius  in  whom  the  quali- 
ties of  the  great  statesman  and  warrior  were  blended  with 
the  faith  of  a  man  ready  to  sacrifice  his  life  for  the  loftiest 
of  causes — religious  liberty.  Gustavus  Adolphus  was,  by 
his  own  triumphant  deeds  and  through  his  school  of  disci- 
pline, which  turned  out  men  worthy  to  follow  up  his  work, 
destined  to  bring  his  country  up  to  the  fulfilment  of  its 
mission  in  the  history  of  human  progress,  and  to  open  for 
it  an  era  of  glory  and  political  grandeur  which  its  limited 
resources  made  it  impossible  to  preserve,  but  which  was 
fruitful  of  results  for  its  later  cultural  evolution. 

The  secret  of  Sweden's  success  in  solving  the  stupendous 
conflict  between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  between 
reaction  and  progress,  rested  in  the  fact  that  this  little 
country  was  eminently  ready  to  wage  a  war  for  religious 
liberty.  It  had  been  more  perfectly  rejuvenated  by  the 
spirit  of  Protestantism  than  had,  at  the  time,  any  other 
country.  The  mediaeval  state,  completed  later  in  Sweden 
than  on  the  continent,  also  gave  way  there  sooner  and  more 
completely  than  elsewhere.  The  yeomanry,  never  fully 
suppressed,  had  preserved  its  old  spirit  of  independence, 
(192) 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  193 

fostered  and  guided  by  patriotic  leaders  of  the  nobility, 
with  or  without  a  crown.  The  population  was  suffering, 
hungering,  bleeding,  but  free,  indomitable,  and  devoted  to 
its  once  more  hereditary  kings  of  Swedish  birth  and  to 
their  new  faith,  which  had  made  strong  in  them  their  old 
individuality  of  views  and  life. 

"When  Gustavus  Adolphus  ascended  the  throne,  the 
country  was  in  the  greatest  peril  and  distress,  and  had 
many  a  lesson  to  learn  before  entering  the  universal  con- 
flict of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  was  born,  Dec.  9,  1594,  at  the  castle 
of  Stockholm.  When  six  years  old,  he  followed  his  father 
to  devastated  Finland,  returning  through  Norrland,  for  the 
settlement  and  future  of  which  territory  great  plans  were 
made.  At  ten,  he  was  ordered  to  be  present  at  the  delib- 
erations of  the  state  council;  at  thirteen,  he  received  peti- 
tions and  complaints,  rectifying  wrongs  and  soothing  suffer- 
ing. His  father  said  of  him,  in  speaking  of  the  fulfilment 
of  great  works,  placing  his  hand  on  the  curly  blond  head : 
**/Z/e  faciei y  The  prince  received  a  severe  and  carefully 
supervised  education,  led  by  Johan  Skytte.  He  acquired 
knowledge  of  a  considerable  number  of  languages,  probably 
all  in  a  mechanical  way,  except  the  Swedish  and  German, 
with  both  of  which  he  was  made  equally  and  thoroughly 
familiar,  speaking  and  writing  the  latter  language  with 
greater  ease  and  perfection  than  the  emperor  Ferdinand, 
or  Maximilian  of  Bavaria.  In  the  sciences  of  economics 
and  war  he  was  well  read,  himself  inaugurating  novel 
theories  in  both.  In  him  the  best  traits  of  the  Vasa  dy- 
nasty were  admirably  blended  and  enlarged.  He  possessed 
an  acute  intellect,  far-reaching  views  of  almost  prophetic 
discernment,  a  mastery  and  patience  in  detail,  and  an  in- 

XX  9 


I94  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

domitable  strength  of  will.  To  the  ceaseless  and  pains- 
taking care  of  the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  characteristic 
of  his  father  and  grandfather,  were  in  him  added  a  har- 
mony of  endowment  and  a  gentleness  of  disposition  which 
made  him  their  superior.  In  him  the  turbulent  blood  of 
the  Vasas  was  held  in  noble  self-restraint.  After  his  rare 
outbursts  of  passion,  he  made  good  his  faults  in  a  most 
royal  manner.  His  youth  was  not  without  the  temptations 
which  beset  all  richly  endowed  natures,  but  they  were  van- 
quished as  he  grew  up  to  the  importance  of  his  grand  mis- 
sion. He  stood  in  the  paternal  attitude  to  his  people  so 
becoming  to  his  grandfather,  but  lacked  the  fiery  demo- 
cratic tendencies  and  the  sympathy  for  the  untitled,  unpre- 
tentious and  lowly,  so  strong  in  his  stern  father.  To  his 
relatives  he  was  as  gentle  as  to  his  subjects,  treating  his 
resolute  and  ambitious  mother,  Christine  of  Holstein-Gofc- 
torp,  with  love  and  respect ;  on  her  demand  sacrificing  the 
love  of  his  youth  and  intended  bride,  Ebba  Brahe,  who 
became  the  consort  of  victorious  Jacob  de  la  Gardie.  Also 
to  his  brother  Charles  Philip  he  stood  in  an  exemplary 
relation ;  but  firmly  refused  to  grant  him  privileges  for  his 
duchy  of  Vermland  which  could  be  injurious  to  the  country 
at  large. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  was  a  man  of  commanding  pres- 
ence, tall  and  of  a  heavy  frame.  The  color  of  his  face  was 
clear  and  light,  his  eyes  blue,  his  hair  and  beard  blond. 
Foreign  contemporary  authors  called  him  **the  golden  king 
of  the  North.''  He  carried  his  head  high,  and  his  open, 
frank  eye,  and  the  clear  voice  of  manly  resonance,  gave 
added  charm  to  his  noble  appearance.  Gustavus  Adolphus 
possessed  a  majestic  dignity  of  bearing  coupled  with  the 
mifeigned  kindness  of  a  noble  heart. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  195^ 

Charles  IX.  had  left  his  son  the  Danish  war  as  an  in- 
heritance. It  was  carried  on  in  the  provinces  of  the  fron- 
tiers, and  consisted  chiefly  in  small  conflicts,  which  caused 
fatigue  and  detriment  without  being  decisive.  The  Danes 
entered  the  interior  of  Smaland  during  the  first  days  of  the 
year  1612.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  in  his  turn,  moved  from 
the  fort  of  Ryssby  into  the  province  of  Scania,  destroying 
by  fire  the  town  of  Vsb  and  several  castles  belonging  to  the 
wealthy  nobility.  During  a  smaller  conflict  which  then 
took  place,  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  in  imminent  danger 
of  his  life. 

The  Swedes  had  made  a  camp  for  themselves  at  the 
cemetery  of  Vittsjoe,  when  suddenly  surprised  by  a  force 
of  Danish  cavalry.  The  Swedes  fought  with  determina- 
tion, but  found  it  necessary  to  leave  their  camp.  They 
took  a  firm  stand  on  the  frozen  waters  of  the  adjoining  lake, 
but  were  forced  to  leave  that  position  also.  A  tumult  en- 
sued, during  which  the  ice  gave  way  on  the  spot  where  the 
king  found  himself,  for  the  moment,  alone  and  without  an 
escort.  Per  Ban6r,  a  6on  of  Gustavus  Baner,  who  was 
executed  at  LinkcBping  at  the  command  of  Charles  IX., 
perceived  the  king  in  the  moment  of  greatest  danger,  and 
hastened  with  Thomas  Larsson,  a  trooper  from  Upland, 
to  rescue  him.  When  in  safety,  the  king  at  once  unbuckled 
his  silver  belt,  and,  handing  it  to  the  trooper,  said:  "I 
shall  remember  thee  with  a  piece  of  bread,  which  neither 
thou  nor  thy  children  shall  ever  find  lacking."  Thomas 
Larsson  received  in  the  following  year  a  farm  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Westmanland,  which  has  remained  in  the  possession 
of  his  descendants  to  this  very  day.  Per  Bandr  received 
in  fief  the  estates  which  had  been  in  the  possession  of  his 
uncle,  Sten  Ban^r,  also  executed  at  Linkoeping,  and  rose 


196  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

to  the  dignity  of  a  state  councillor  during  the  minority  of 
Queen  Christine. 

It  was  the  ambition  of  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  to  cut 
Sweden  off  from  any  communication  with  the  North  Sea. 
As  Bohuslsen  and  Halland  both  were  parts  of  the  Danish  do- 
minion, there  was  only  the  small  strip  of  territory  surround- 
ing the  mouth  of  the  Gotha  River  to  conquer.  The  island 
of  Hising  constituted  the  larger  part  of  it,  and  was  the  site 
of  the  new  town  of  Gothenburg,  which  was  defended  by  the 
fortress  of  Elfsborg.  The  town  of  New  Lcedoese  was  sit- 
uated on  the  opposite  shore,  some  few  miles  up  the  river, 
defended  by  the  fort  of  Gullberg.  The  Danish  king  ap- 
proached Gullberg  from  Bohus,  having  with  him  a  smaller 
force,  which  he  considered  sufficient  in  numbers.  Gullberg 
was  only  a  poor  little  nest,  but  it  was  valiantly  defended 
by  Morten  Krakow  and  his  wife,  the  stanch  Lady  Emer- 
entia  Pauli.  One  day  the  Danes  made  a  violent  attack. 
The  ladders  which  they  placed  against  the  walls  were 
crushed  by  heavy  beams  which  the  Swedes  let  fall  down 
on  them.  In  spite  of  this,  the  Danes  succeeded  in  forcing 
the  gates  of  the  place.  The  position  was  a  critical  one  for 
the  Swedes.  The  commander  had  met  with  an  accident 
and  was  unable  to  lead  the  defence.  But  Lady  Emerentia 
resolved  to  take  the  conmiand.  She  gave  orders  to  the 
wives  of  the  soldiers  to  fill  up  the  vaulted  passage  of  the 
gates  with  barrels,  washtnbe,  timber,  etc.  When  the  Danes 
stormed  on  in  a  compact  body,  they  were  received  by  a 
downfall  of  scalding-hot  lye,  which  the  women  kept  pouring 
down  on  them  from  behind  their  barricade.  The  daughter 
of  Lady  Emerentia  thus  graphically  describes  the  effect: 
•*They  lay  in  the  vault  and  around  the  gates  like  scalded 
hogs."    Lady  Emerentia  had  placed  two  pieces  of  artillery 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  197 

on  the  top  of  a  small  building  fronting  the  gates.  They 
were  loaded  with  broken  horseshoes  and  the  hke  and  sent 
out  a  disastrous  fire.  The  few  surviving  Danes  fled  hur- 
riedly for  their  lives,  leaving  Lady  Emerentia  in  proud 
possession  of  the  fort.  A  second  attack  which  was  made 
later  on  proved  as  futile  as  the  first.  King  Christian  then 
gave  command  to  abandon  the  plan  of  taking  the  fort.  The 
Danish  army  collected  in  a  field  in  front  of  Gullberg.  But 
Lady  Emerentia  was  vigilant.  From  the  walls  of  the  fort 
she  espied  a  man  of  prepossessing  appearance  who  rode  a 
white  horse.  ** Shoot  that  man  I"  was  her  immediate  com- 
mand to  the  nearest  soldier.  The  shot  took  effect,  killing 
the  white  horse,  whose  brains  and  blood  spattered  the  king. 
For  the  man  on  horseback  was  King  Christian.  "That 
devilish  crow  does  never  sleep  1"  exclaimed  the  king,  refer- 
ring to  the  commander. 

King  Christian  turned  on  New  Loedoese,  killing  without 
mercy  all  the  male  inhabitants  of  the  town.  West  Goth- 
land was  invaded,  the  province  appearing  to  be  an  easy 
prey  because  the  Swedish  army,  commanded  by  Duke  John, 
had  just  left  it  to  march  into  Halland.  But  the  bailiff  of 
Hoejentorp  called  on  the  peasants  to  rise,  which  caused  the 
Danes  to  recede.  The  Danes  next  made  an  attack  on  the 
fortress  of  Elfsborg,  conmianded  by  Olof  Strole.  Elfsborg 
was  defended  with  heroism,  but  when  fire  threatened  to 
destroy  the  towers,  Olof  Strole  at  last  surrendered.  On 
account  of  their  valiant  conduct  the  commander  and  his 
men,  who  were  reduced  to  200,  were  granted  free  passage 
with  their  music  and  banners.  The  able  Morten  Krakow 
of  Gullberg  had  been  promoted  to  the  fortress  of  Vaxholm. 
His  successor  surrendered  Gullberg  to  the  Danes  shortly 
after  the  fall  of  Elfsborg.     King  Christian  planned  a  series 


199  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

of  invasions  in  the  year  1612,  but,  thanks  to  the  vigilanoe 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  he  failed  to  accomplish  the  desired 
effect. 

Gustavue  Adolphus  wanted  peace  with  Denmark,  and 
such  was  made  at  Kneroed  in  1613,  after  a  war  of  mutual 
invasions  and  without  any  decisive  battles  or  conquests  of 
territory.  The  frontiers  were  to  remain  the  same  as  before 
the  war;  the  Danish  king  was  allowed  to  keep  the  emblem 
of  three  crowns,  but  had  to  resign  his  claims  upon  the  Swed- 
ish crown.  The  fortress  of  Elfsborg  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  Danes  for  six  years,  until  $1,000,000,  an  exorbitant 
sum  in  those  days,  was  paid  for  it.  It  cost  the  people  of 
Sweden  very  dear  to  pay  this  sum,  sacrifices  being  made 
by  the  king  and  his  friends  to  contribute  to  it.  But  Elfs- 
borg, the  only  approach  to  the  North  Sea,  was  indispensa- 
ble. It  was  returned  in  a  miserable  condition,  and  Goth- 
enburg, on  the  opposite  side  of  Gotha  River,  destroyed. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  ordered  Gothenburg  to  be  moved  to  its 
present  site,  on  the  mainland,  and  endowed  it  with  exten- 
sive commercial  privileges,  encouraging  Dutch  merchants 
to  settle  there. 

The  war  with  Russia  began  once  more  in  1614.  Gus- 
tavus Adolphus  not  having  been  found  willing  to  accept  the 
crown  for  his  brother  Charles  Philip,  the  negotiations  were 
dropped.  Count  de  la  Gardie  resumed  control  of  the  move- 
ments, although  the  king  was  present  in  person.  The 
Swedes  won  a  great  victory  at  Bronitz  and  captured  the 
fortress  of  Augdof.  An  attempt  to  take  Pskof  was  unsuc- 
cessful. Evert  Horn,  the  hero  of  a  hundred  battles,  losing 
his  life;  but  the  Russians  were  willing  to  make  peace. 
Through  the  honorable  peace  of  Stolbova,  in  February, 
1617,  Russia  gave  up  all  claims  on  Esthonia  and  Livonia, 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  199 

and  ceded  to  Sweden  Ingermanland  and  Kexholm.  Thia 
cut  off  the  Russians  from  the  Baltic,  fixed  the  Swedish 
frontier  on  the  lakes  Ladoga  and  Peipus,  and  left  Sweden 
in  peace  with  the  mightiest  of  her  enemies  during  almost  a 
century.  The  armistice  with  Poland  ended  in  1616,  but 
after  two  years  of  insignificant  movements  it  was  continued 
up  to  1620. 

Gustavus  II.  Adolphus  with  untiring  energy  continued 
the  work  of  building  up  the  new  state  founded  by  Gustavus 
I.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  the  royal  youth  had  won 
everybody  by  his  gentleness  and  generosity.  His  first  act 
was  perhaps  the  wisest  of  all,  in  selecting  among  the  coun- 
cillors the  young,  highly  talented  Axel  Oxenstierna  as  his 
chancellor.  This  couple  have  no  peers  in  history,  being 
united  by  the  firmest  of  friendships  and  rising  simultane- 
ously to  the  highest  ability  of  statesmanship,  the  gifts  of 
the  one  wonderfully  supplementing  those  of  the  other.  The 
chancellor  was  cooler  and  slower  than  his  royal  friend.  He 
placed  supreme  the  duties  to  his  country,  but  was  of  very 
aristocratic  tendencies,  through  his  infiuence  leading  the 
king  still  further  away  from  the  democratic  principles  of  his 
father.  To  the  nobility  were  granted  the  old  privileges, 
with  others  in  addition,  which  became  menacing  to  the 
ancient  freedom  of  the  peasantry.  The  management  of 
internal  affairs  and  all  branches  of  the  administration  were 
placed  under  various  departments.  They  were  presided 
over  by  the  high  functionaries  and  their  offices  chiefly  filled 
by  noblemen.  A  permanent  supreme  court  was  established 
in  Stockholm,  with  the  Drotsete  as  president,  in  1614.  In 
1623,  a  supreme  court  for  Finland  was  established  and  a 
governor- general  for  that  grandduchy  appointed,  who  was 
also  to  be  president  of  the  court.     In  1630,  a  supreme  court 


J200  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

for  the  Baltic  provinces  was  established  at  Dorpat.  The 
Riksdag,  governed  by  the  new  rules  of  1617,  was  to  convene 
yearly,  and  to  consist  of  the  four  Estates  of  the  kingdom: 
the  nobility,  clergy,  bourgeoisie  and  yeomanry,  each  divided 
into  various  classes.  These  latter  were  as  yet  not  quite 
distinct  or  organized,  except  those  of  the  nobility,  who,  in 
1625,  formed  a  knightly  chapter,  the  Riddarhus,  which  kept 
a  register  of  the  legitimate  noble  families  of  Sweden  and 
Finland  and  watched  over  the  interests  of  its  members. 
The  Estate  of  the  nobility  was  divided  in  three  classes, 
lords,  knights  and  squires.  To  the  first  belonged  the 
holders  of  counties  and  baronies,  to  the  second  those  whose 
ancestors  held  the  rank  of  state  councillors,  and  to  the  third 
the  rest  of  the  nobility.  As  each  class  had  one  vote  in  the 
Riksdag,  the  supremacy  of  lords  and  knights,  called  the 
''higher  nobility,"  was  secure,  when  standing  united,  over 
the  more  numerous  third  class,  the  "lower  nobility."  The 
king  appointed  the  speaker  of  the  nobility,  the  landtmar- 
skalky  who  also  was  the  president  of  their  chapter.  The 
Swedish  church  had  its  greatest  epoch  during  the  period 
of  political  grandeur,  being  characterized  by  a  remarkable 
strength  of  faith  and  by  a  praiseworthy  energy  and  earnest- 
ness. The  clergy,  high  and  low,  set  beautiful  examples  of 
piety,  learning  and  patriotism.  It  was  beloved  by  the  peo- 
ple and  spoke  in  their  behalf  with  authority  and  courage. 
Not  able  to  win  Gustavus  Adolphus  over  to  more  demo- 
cratic views,  it  won  his  admiration,  and  he  surnamed  the 
ministers  "tribunes  of  the  people."  The  burghers,  touched 
by  the  patriotic  spirit,  developed  great  energy  during  this 
period,  trade  and  commerce  having  a  devoted  patron  in 
the  king,  who,  besides  the  new  Gothenburg,  founded  twelve 
other  towns  in  Sweden  and  Finland.     The  miners  occupied 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  20l 

of  old  an  uncertain  position  between  burghers  and  yeomen. 
They  were  strengthened  and  encouraged  by  the  personal 
interest  which  the  king  took  in  the  mining  industry.  He 
visited  the  mines  repeatedly,  descending  into  the  bowels 
of  the  earth  to  inspect  the  ore  and  the  new  methods  intro- 
duced from  abroad  by  foreign  miners.  Among  the  latter 
the  immigrated  Dutchman,  Louis  de  Geer,  exerted  a  bene- 
ficial influence  upon  that  industry.  The  factories  producing 
clothing  and  weapons  for  the  army  were  also  encouraged. 
The  yeomen  occupied  a  difficult,  almost  desperate  position 
between  the  increasing  privileges  of  the  nobility  and  the  in- 
creasing taxes  of  the  crown.  Their  burdens  were  doubled 
and  their  rights  reduced ;  yet  sustained  by  the  church,  and 
believing  in  the  lofty  ideals  of  the  king,  they  persevered, 
fulfilling  their  duties  with  a  high  degree  of  patriotism. 

No  Swedish  king  has  done  so  much  for  education  as 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  To  the  University  of  Upsala  he  do- 
nated 300  of  his  hereditary  estates,  founding  its  library, 
improving  its  courses,  banishing  misrule,  and  appoint- 
ing his  old  teacher,  John  Skytte,  its  chancellor.  He 
created  the  German  University  of  Dorpat  in  Esthonia,  in 
1632;  later  for  some  time  moved  to  Pernau.  Colleges  were 
established  in  the  larger  towns.  The  king  was,  through 
his  thorough  studies  of  Swedish  laws  and  conditions,  in  a 
position  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  reforms*  which  he 
promulgated,  never  resting  long  in  one  place,  but  travel- 
ling from  one  point  to  another,  where  his  presence  was 
most  necessary;  shaping  plans  and  reforms  by  his  own 
judgment,  to  have  them  indorsed  by  the  next  Riksdag, 
and  then  enforcing  them  himself.  Especially  the  army 
passed  through  an  evolution,  thanks  to  new  methods,  de- 
vised by  the  king,  who  was  to  win  his  victories  through 


t02  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

the  introdaction  of  improved  tactics  and  divisions,  by  means 
of  which  the  troops  were  easier  to  move  and  the  co-opera- 
tion between  the  various  weapons  increased. 

In  1618  the  "Thirty  Years'  War"  began.  The  de- 
throned Frederic  of  the  Palatinate  turned,  among  others, 
to  Gustavus  Adolphus  for  support,  which  the  latter  was 
not  able  to  give  in  a  direct  way.  But  he  promised  to  at- 
tack Poland  as  soon  as  the  armistice  was  at  an  end,  thereby 
making  it  impossible  for  Sigismund  to  support  Emperor 
Ferdinand  with  troops.  In  1621,  Gustavus  Adolphus  com- 
menced operations  against  Poland,  taking  the  command 
himself.  Riga  and  Mitau  were  captured,  the  former  im- 
portant commercial  centre  regaining  its  privileges,  but  send- 
ing representatives  to  the  Swedish  Riksdag  and  accepting 
a  Swedish  governor.  After  having  conquered  Livonia, 
Gustavus  Adolphus  entered  Courland  the  following  year, 
when  an  armistice  was  agreed  to.  Gustavus  followed  the 
events  in  Germany  with  increasing  interest,  forming  the 
plan  of  an  alliance  between  the  Protestant  powers.  Learn- 
ing that  the  emperor  was  willing  to  support  Sigismund, 
Gustavus  Adolphus  offered  to  invade  Silesia.  But  as  Chris- 
tian IV.  of  Denmark  was  anxious  to  lead  the  Protestant 
forces,  Gustavus  Adolphus  quietly  withdrew,  resuming 
action  against  Poland.  After  a  victory  at  Wallhof,  he 
entered  PoHsh  Prussia,  where  he  was  dangerously  wounded 
at  Dirschau.  The  Poles  were  reinforced  by  imperial  troops, 
but  suffered  a  defeat  at  Gurzo;  the  Swedish  general,  Her- 
man Wrangel,  winning  the  day.  When  the  considerable 
reinforcements  of  10,000  men  joined  the  Poles,  the  Swedes 
receded  in  good  order.  A  smaller  conflict  occurred  at 
8tuhm,  famous  because  Gustavus  Adolphus  .was  twice  in 
danger  of  his  life  during  the  struggle,  which  otherwise 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  203 

was  of  no  importance.  An  imperial  trooper  caught  him 
by  the  belt  and  tried  to  drag  the  king  with  him.  Accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  Axel  Oxenstiema,  the  king  loosened 
the  belt  and  let  it  go.  In  so  doing,  he  also  lost  his  hat, 
which  was  carried  to  Vienna  and  preserved  as  a  token  of 
the  ** great  victory.''  Another  trooper,  shortly  afterward, 
caught  the  king  by  the  arm,  aiming  at  the  head  with  his 
sword.  In  the  critical  moment,  Eric  Soop,  the  colonel  of 
a  Swedish  cavalry  regiment,  appeared,  killing  the  trooper 
with  a  pistol-shot.  Gustavus  Adolphus  referred  to  this 
struggle  as  the  **hottest  bath*'  that  he  was  ever  in. 

In  September,  1629,  an  armistice  was  agreed  to,  at 
Altmark,  to  last  for  six  years,  during  which  period  Sweden 
was  to  keep  Livonia  and  the  Russian  towns  of  Elbing, 
Braunsberg,  Pillau  and  Memel.  The  new  acquisition  of 
territory  was  small,  but  the  revenue  from  these  commercial 
towns,  and  from  Dantzic,  Libau  and  Windau,  was  consid- 
erable, and  went  to  pay  for  the  army  expenses  of  the  Ger- 
man campaign.  The  new  temporary  possessions  in  Prussia 
were  formed  into  a  Swedish  governmental  section,  over 
which  Axel   Oxenstierna  was  appointed   governor-general. 

What  follows  belongs  to  one  of  the  most  noted  chapters 
of  universal  history.  The  unbroken  chain  of  Swedish  vic- 
tories, the  noble  character  of  the  king  and  the  severe  dis- 
cipline upheld  among  his  men,  who  commenced  and  ended 
their  battles  with  prayers  and  hymns,  astounded  the  world. 
The  exalted  nobility  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  appears  to  us 
all  the  more  striking,  contrasted  with  the  faithlessness, 
vanity  and  cowardice  of  the  contemporary  reigning  princes 
of  Germany  and  Denmark.  His  victories  appear  all  the 
more  remarkable  because  the  greatest  warriors  of  the  age — 
Tilly,  Wallenstein  and  Pappenheim — were  his  adversaries. 


204  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

He  was  received  by  the  people  of  Germany  as  a  liberator, 
and  his  memory  is  blessed  by  every  thinking  German,  who 
admits  that  the  Swedes,  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Axel  Oxen- 
stiema,  completed  the  work  which  the  Germans,  Luther 
and  Melanchthon,  created.  The  loftiness  of  the  ideals 
which  inspired  Gustavus  Adolphus  have  been  doubted, 
but  not  with  justice.  He  was  brought  up  in  a  severely 
Christian  home  and  the  sincerity  of  his  piety  is  unmistak- 
able. His  father's  clairvoyant  views  upon  the  coming 
reUgious  conflict  were  familiar  to  him  since  his  early  youth, 
while  he  was,  through  his  mother,  related  in  blood  to  the 
majority  of  Protestant  princes.  Thus  apparently  predes- 
tined, as  the  greatest  statesman  and  warrior  of  his  age,  to 
take  up  the  cause  of  his  persecuted  brethren,  he  did  not  do 
so  before  the  ambitious  Christian  IV.  had  utterly  failed 
in  his  attempts  and  with  contumely  been  forced  to  retire. 
It  is  not  probable  that  Gustavus  Adolphus  ever  thought 
of  placing  the  crown  of  the  Roman  empire  upon  his  head, 
but  plausible  to  suppose  that  he  had  in  view  the  formation 
of  a  strong  union  of  the  Protestant  countries  of  ^Northern 
Europe. 

Before  leaving  Sweden,  Gustavus  II.  convoked  the  rep- 
resentatives of  his  people,  holding  on  his  arm  his  little 
daughter  Christine,  four  years  old,  for  whom  he  asked  their 
pledge  of  allegiance.  His  farewell  speech  was  touching 
in  its  simplicity  and  the  premonition  of  his  tragic  end. 
Not  for  worldly  glory,  but  to  save  his  country  from  peril 
and  his  brethren  from  distress,  he  undertook  this  risky  war. 
** Generally,"  he  said,  **it  happens  thus  that  the  vessel  hauls 
water  imtil  it  goes  to  pieces.  With  me  likewise,  that  I, 
who  in  so  many  perils  for  the  weal  of  my  country  have 
shed  my  blood,  and  yet  until  this  day  have  been  spared 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  205 

through  the  grace  of  Gk)d,  now  at  last  must  lose  my  life. 
For  that  reason  I  will  this  time  commend  you,  the  collected 
Estates  of  the  realm,  to  the  hand  of  God,  the  Supreme  One, 
wishing  that  we,  after  this  our  miserable  and  burdensome 
life,  according  to  the  will  of  God,  may  meet  again,  to  dwell 
in  the  celestial  and  infinite."  These  words  do  not  resemble 
the  terse,  striking  speeches  of  his  grandfather,  but  they  bear 
the  stamp  of  sincerity,  and  by  them  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
his  work  and  his  purpose,  are  judged  by  the  Swedish 
people. 

Midsummer  Day,  1630,  Gustavus  Adolphus  landed  with 
his  troops  at  the  island  of  Ruden,  on  the  coast  of  Pome- 
rania.  Two  days  later  he  proceeded  to  the  larger  island 
of  Usedom.  His  troops  consisted  of  13,000  men.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  was  himself  the  first  to  land.  He  knelt  on  the 
shore  and  prayed  to  God  in  a  loud  voice;  his  prayer  moved 
those  surrounding  him  to  tears.  When  the  king  noticed 
it  he  said:  **Do  not  cry,  but  pray  to  God  with  fervor. 
The  more  of  prayer,  the  more  of  victory;  the  best  Chris- 
tian is  the  best  soldier.'*  Then  he  took  hold  of  a  spade  and 
commenced  to  assist  personally  in  the  work  of  building  a 
camp.  When  it  grew  dark,  the  heavens  were  illuminated 
by  the  fire  of  burning  villages,  giving  evidence  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  enemy  conducted  his  warfare. 

The  supercilious  Wallenstein  had  been  dismissed  by  the 
emperor  at  the  time  when  Gustavus  Adolphus  landed  in 
Germany,  but  his  wild  hordes  were  pillaging  Pomerania. 
Yet  Gustavus  Adolphus  had  great  difficulty  in  persuading 
the  old  duke  of  Pomerania  to  accept  the  alliance  he  offered 
him.  But  when  this  was  done,  it  took  the  Swedes  only  a 
short  time  to  clear  the  duchy  of  its  enemies.  The  young 
landgrave  of  Hesse  and  the  free  city  of  Magdebui^  were 


206  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

glad  to  accept  an  alliance  with  Gustavus  Adolphus.  A 
treaty  was  made  with  France,  which  country  promised  to 
pay  subsidies  to  Sweden  as  long  as  the  German  war  lasted. 
Tilly,  who  was  in  command  of  the  imperial  troops,  ap- 
proached Magdeburg.  Gustavus  Adolphus  sent  proper 
provisions  to  Magdeburg  with  an  experienced  commander, 
as  he  could  not  go  himself,  because  the  elector  of  Saxony 
refused  to  let  him  pass  with  his  army  through  Saxon  terri- 
tory. Magdeburg  was  captured  by  Tilly,  who  sacked  and 
destroyed  it  by  fire  in  a  most  barbarous  way. 

The  discipline  and  moderation  of  the  Swedish  troops 
formed  a  great  contrast  to  the  reckless  behavior  of  the  im- 
perial army.  The  Swedes  left  the  peaceful  inhabitants 
in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  lives  and  property;  the 
strictest  order  was  maintained  within  the  army ;  each  regi- 
ment held  morning  and  evening  prayers  in  the  open  air; 
gambling,  carousing  and  plundering  were  sternly  prohib- 
ited. For  these  reasons  the  Swedish  king  and  his  army 
were  received  by  the  poor  downtrodden  people  as  saviors 
and  liberators.  Gustavus  Adolphus  deeply  mourned  the 
fall  of  Magdeburg,  whose  fate  it  had  not  been  in  his  power 
to  prevent.  He  took  a  fortified  position  at  Werben,  where 
the  river  Havel  is  joined  by  the  Ube.  Tilly  entered  Saxony 
with  a  hostile  demeanor,  not  satisfied  with  the  lukewarm 
friendship  of  the  elector.  Burning  villages  marked  the  way 
of  his  army.  The  poor  elector,  not  knowing  what  to  do,  in 
his  despair  turned  to  Gustavus  Adolphus,  whom  he  had 
treated  so  coldly  and  begged  him  for  help.  The  king  at 
once  was  ready  to  forget  past  differences,  and,  joining 
forces  with  the  elector,  he  marched  toward  Leipsic. 

Tilly,  with  35,000  men,  occupied  an  advantageous  posi- 
tion near  the  village  of  Breitenfeld,  not  far  from  Leipsic, 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  207 

at  the  summit  of  a  long  ridge  of  sandy  hOls.  The  infantry 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  cavabry  were  grouped  in  heavy 
divisions,  forming  one  single  line  of  battle  with  artillery 
behind  at  the  very  top  of  the  hills.  Tilly  himself  com- 
manded the  centre,  while  his  able  and  fiery  sub-commander, 
Pappenheim,  had  the  command  of  the  left  wing,  being  in 
hopes  to  encounter  the  Swedish  king  personally.  The 
Swedish  army  consisted  of  22,000  men,  who  were  joined 
by  11,000  Saxons. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  September  7,  1631,  the  Swedes 
started  toward  Breitenfeld.  Tilly  turned  pale,  it  is  said, 
when  he  saw  the  order  and  firmness  with  which  the  Swedes 
marched  up  to  take  their  positions  on  the  narrow  slips  of 
ground  between  the  Leber  brook  and  the  reach  of  the  im- 
perial cannon.  The  Swedes  were  arranged  in  a  double  line 
of  battle,  infantry  in  the  centre  and  cavalry  on  the  wings. 
Between  the  squadrons  of  cavalry  divisions  of  musketeers 
were  placed.  The  regimental  artillery  was  distributed  over 
a  number  of  places.  The  king  commanded  the  right  wing 
in  person,  with  John  Ban^r  as  sub-commander.  Teuffel 
led  the  centre  and  Gustavus  Horn  the  left  wing.  The  king 
had  no  confidence  in  the  Saxons,  for  which  reason  he  had 
arranged  them  by  themselves  at  some  distance  to  the  left 
of  the  Swedish  army.  "When  everything  was  arranged,  the 
king  rode  to  the  front.  With  his  head  uncovered,  and  his 
sword  pointing  to  the  ground,  he  prayed:  ** Almighty  God, 
thou  who  boldest  victory  and  defeat  in  the  hollow  of  thy 
hand,  turn  thine  eyes  unto  us,  thy  servants,  who  have  come 
hither  from  distant  dwellings  to  fight  for  liberty  and  truth, 
for  thy  holy  Gospel.  Give  victory  unto  us  for  the  glory 
of  thy  hallowed  name!  Amen  I"  The  prayer  of  the  king 
could  be  heard  by  almost  every  man  of  the  army,  and  all 


208  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

were  touched  and  strengthened  by  his  pious  trust  in  a  right- 
eous cause.  The  Swedes  of  the  right  wing  were  soon  at- 
tacked by  Pappenheim  and  his  cavalry.  But  the  horses 
of  the  imperialists  were  frightened  by  the  flashing  fire  of 
the  musketeers,  and  the  attack  failed  to  have  an  effect. 
It  was  ended  as  quickly  as  it  was  begun.  Pappenheim 
concluded  to  make  an  attempt  to  surprise  the  Swedes  from 
the  left  side.  But  the  king  divined  his  plan.  He  ordered 
John  Bandr  with  the  second  line  to  make  a  movement  by 
which  to  turn  at  an  angle  with  the  first  and  face  the  attack 
from  the  side.  Pappenheim  was  surprised  to  find  a  new 
line  facing  him.  A  bloody  struggle  ensued.  Seven  times 
his  men  made  an  inroad  on  the  Swedish  line  and  were  seven 
times  repulsed,  badly  damaged  by  the  fire  of  the  musket- 
eers. The  Swedes,  in  their  turn,  made  an  attack  which 
scattered  Pappenheim's  forces  from  the  field  in  wild  flight. 
Tilly  had  with  his  light  cavalry  attacked  the  left  wing 
of  the  Swedes.  His  men  were  mostly  made  up  of  Croats 
and  other  semi-barbarous  people.  When  repulsed  by  the 
Swedes  they  concentrated  their  forces  to  crush  the  Saxons. 
These  withstood  the  first  assault,  but  the  second  routed 
them  completely.  The  imperialists  then  made  a  second 
attack  upon  the  left  Swedish  wing,  made  up  of  only  2,500 
men.  Gustavus  Horn  acted  with  coolness  and  great  pres- 
ence of  mind.  He  let  the  first  line  close  in  on  the  second 
till  it  was  able  to  take  a  firm  stand  against  the  heavy  force 
of  the  attacking  enemy.  The  Swedes  never  for  a  moment 
lost  their  position,  in  spite  of  the  frightful  onslaught.  The 
king  arrived  and  remained  for  some  time  with  the  left  wing. 
He  ordered  the  Scotch  brigade  of  hired  troops  to  support 
him.  The  Scotch  had  cannon  hidden  behind  their  linea. 
These  had  a  tellmg  eftect  upon  ttoe  attacking  imperialists, 


HISTCHIY   OF   SWEDEX  209 

who  were  thrown  back,  suffering  great  losses.  Everywhere 
the  battle  was  fought  with  frenzy,  the  clouds  of  dust  and 
smoke  changing  the  day  into  night. 

The  king  made  sure  that  the  left  wing  of  the  enemy's 
army  was  engaged  in  continued  flight.  Then  he  com- 
menced an  attack  with  his  own  right  wing  upon  the  im- 
perial artillery,  which  had  kept  up  a  steady  fire  against  the 
Swedish  centre.  Tilly's  cannon  were  captured  at  the  first 
attempt  and  turned  on  the  imperial  troops,  causing  con- 
sternation. Horn  opened  an  attack  on  his  side  and  the 
king  hastened  to  support  him  with  his  troops.  Tilly  tried 
in  vain  to  lead  his  troops  into  the  battle.  Pappenheim  had 
returned  and  gave  brilHant  proofs  of  personal  courage.  The 
defeat  of  the  imperial  army  was  unavoidable;  it  scattered 
in  helpless  confusion.  Tilly  lost  his  horse  and  was  near 
being  captured  himself.  Four  of  his  best  infantry  regi- 
ments took  a  stand  and  tried  to  resist  the  conquering  foe. 
These  imperial  soldiers,  who  never  had  suffered  a  defeat, 
preferred  death  to  surrender.  Tilly  fled  at  last,  followed  by 
only  600  men.  After  five  hours  of  fighting  the  Swedes  had 
won  a  glorious  victory.  They  finished  the  day  with  prayer 
and  remained  on  the  battlefield  over  night,  arranged  in 
order  of  battle.  The  following  morning  they  entered  the 
deserted  camp  of  the  enemy  where  a  rich  booty  awaited 
them. 

The  progress  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  along  the  shores 
of  the  river  Main  to  the  towns  of  Frankfort  and  Mayence 
was  a  march  of  triumph.  In  capturing  Mayence,  the 
Swedes  fought  the  Spanish  allies  of  the  emperor.  The 
towns  surrendered  to  violence  or  by  their  own  consent. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  made  their  inhabitants  pledge  their 
fideUty  to  him  and  strengthened  his  power  with  the  rich 


3810  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

resources  of  the  Frankish  country.  Then  he  turned  against 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria.  Tilly,  who  was  to  defend  Bavaria, 
was  again  encountered  and  defeated  at  Lech.  He  was  car- 
ried from  the  battle  mortally  wounded  and  died  soon  after- 
ward. Gustavus  Adolphus  made  his  triumphal  entry  into 
Munich,  with  Frederic  of  the  Palatinate  at  his  side.  The 
danger  to  the  crown  lands  of  the  emperor  was  immi- 
nent. 

Wallenstein  was  the  most  famous  of  German  generals. 
Reticent  and  secretive,  he  appeared  to  be  unable  to  feel 
mercy.  He  was  devoted  to  the  secret  doctrines  of  astrol- 
ogy, which  in  him  had  taken  the  place  of  religion.  He 
cared  naught  for  the  cause  of  religious  liberty  or  the  fall 
of  the  German  empire,  looking  only  for  occasions  to  sat- 
isfy his  own  ambition  and  the  means  of  obtaining  power 
and  wealth.  He  had  served  the  emperor,  who  had  raised 
him  to  the  dignity  of  a  duke  of  Mecklenburg,  but  had  been 
dismissed  and  deprived  of  his  dignities  at  the  time  of  the 
arrival  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  on  German  soil.  His  down- 
fall was  caused  by  complaints  of  his  insolence  and  reckless- 
ness, made  by  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  and  other  German 
princes.  "Wallenstein  retired  to  Prague,  at  the  castle  of 
which  town  he  surrounded  himself  with  princely  luxury 
and  comfort,  scheming  for  revenge.  His  plan  was  to  join 
the  enemies  of  the  emperor.  He  approached  Gustavus 
Adolphus  for  such  purpose,  before  the  battle  of  Breitenfeld, 
and  was  delighted  to  hear  of  the  defeat  of  Tilly.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  seemed  at  first  inclined  to  take  up  relations  with 
"Wallenstein,  but  at  the  point  where  an  agreement  was  to 
be  made  he  suddenly  changed  his  attitude.  The  king  prob- 
ably hesitated  to  accept  the  services  of  a  man  who  had  no 
other  aim  than  to  satisfy  his  own  ambition.     The  emperor 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  2H 

was  placed  in  a  bad  predicament,  at  the  second  defeat  of 
Tilly,  for  want  of  an  army  to  defend  his  lands  and  a  com- 
mander to  lead  it.  There  was  only  one  way  out  of  the 
difficulty,  and  that  was  to  pacify  the  mortally  offended 
Wallenstein,  and  to  persuade  him  to  re-enter  the  service 
of  the  emperor.  The  emperor  resigned  himself  to  accept 
this  humiliating  condition,  and  Wallenstein  agreed  to  re- 
sume command,  but  only  at  a  high  price.  The  name  of 
Wallenstein  was  enough  to  bring  thousands  of  warriors 
under  the  imperial  banners,  and  Wallenstein  was  soon  at 
the  head  of  an  army  of  sufficient  proportions.  His  doctrine 
was  that  '*the  war  should  support  itself,"  according  to 
which  his  soldiers  were  allowed  to  sack  and  plunder  at  will 
the  countries  through  which  they  were  passing.  He  cared 
naught  for  the  recklessness  of  his  subordinates,  if  they  only 
showed  bUnd  obedience  to  him. 

Wallenstein  expelled  the  Saxons  who  had  invaded  Bo- 
hemia. But  he  showed  disinclination  to  assist  the  elector 
of  Bavaria,  who  was  compelled  to  leave  his  country.  At 
Eger,  Wallenstein  was  reinforced  and  marched  on  Nurem- 
berg with  an  army  of  60,000,  prepared  to  meet  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  He  was  confident  of  his  superior  force.  "With- 
in four  days,"  he  said,  **it  shall  become  evident  whether 
I  or  the  Swedish  king  is  the  master  of  Germany."  Gus- 
tavus Adolphus  hastened  to  relieve  Nuremberg,  taking  his 
position  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  said  town.  He 
had  only  18,000  men  with  him,  but  he  surrounded  this  army 
with  solid  fortifications,  and  Wallenstein  dared  not  risk  an 
attack,  in  spite  of  his  superior  force.  Wallenstein  took  his 
position  at  the  summit  of  three  steep  hills,  surrounded  by 
trenches  and  ramparts.  His  intention  was  to  cut  off  the 
Swedes  from  all  sources  of  supplies  and  force  them  to  sur- 


212  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

render  by  starvation.     **I  shall  teach  the  Swedish  king,'* 
he  said,  **a  new  method  of  warfare." 

For  nine  weeks  the  two  armies  were  facing  each  other. 
The  suffering  became  great  in  both  camps.  The  Swedes 
suffered  most,  although  the  inhabitants  of  Nuremberg  tried 
their  utmost  to  supply  them  with  food.  When  the  provis- 
ions were  diminishing,  the  bonds  of  discipline  were  loosened. 
Especially  the  Germans  of  the  Swedish  army  made  them- 
selves conspicuous  by  licentiousness  and  plunder.  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  decided  to  try  an  attack  on  Wallenstein's 
camp,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  critical  state  of  things. 
He  was  so  much  more  anxious  to  risk  it,  as  his  army  had 
been  considerably  reinforced  and  was  almost  equal  to  Wal- 
lenstein's in  numbers.  At  noon,  August  24,  1632,  the 
Swedish  army  made  ready  for  battle.  The  attack  was  first 
made  on  Burgstall,  the  most  important  one  of  the  three 
hills  occupied  by  the  enemy.  The  battle  was  a  fierce  and 
bloody  one,  the  whole  mountain  being  clothed  in  fire  and 
smoke.  Several  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Swedish 
officers  were  killed  or  captured.  A  bullet  passed  through 
the  boot  of  the  king ;  an  officer  was  killed  at  his  side.  The 
Swedes  were  thrown  back  on  one  hand,  while  on  the  other, 
Duke  Bernhard  of  Weimar,  one  of  the  German  commanders 
of  the  king,  succeeded  in  capturing  one  of  the  forts  built  on 
the  Burgstall.  But  as  the  day  was  over  and  the  army 
exhausted,  the  Swedes  were  not  able  to  profit  by  their  suc- 
cess. A  heavy  rain  commenced,  continuing  through  the 
night.  This  made  it  impossible  to  haul  any  cannon  up  to 
the  captured  fort,  which  was  then  abandoned.  The  Swed- 
ish army  returned  to  the  camp.  This  unsuccessful  attack 
cost  the  Swedes  almost  2,000  men.  Gustavus  Adolphus 
wrote  in  regard  to  it:  "It  was  too  much  to  be  considered 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  213 

a  page's  trick,  but  too  small  to  be  of  real  earnest."  Walleu- 
stein  wrote  of  it.  **  Never  in  my  life  have  I  seen  a  more 
desperate  fire,  but  I  hope  that  the  Swedes  have  lost  their 
horns  in  this  conflict.'* 

The  king  broke  camp  a  fortnight  later,  arranging  his 
army  into  a  line  of  battle.  For  four  hours  he  waited  fo^ 
Wallenstein  to  come  forward,  but  the  latter  did  not  risk 
an  attack.  Gustavus  Adolphus  intended  to  enter  Swabia, 
to  complete  the  conquest  of  Southwestern  Germany.  But 
Wallenstein,  who  soon  afterward  also  broke  camp,  invaded 
Saxony.  This  caused  the  king  to  change  his  plans.  He 
was  obliged  to  follow  Wallenstein  in  order  to  protect  his  ally 
and  to  avoid  the  danger  of  being  cut  off  from  the  connec- 
tions with  his  own  empire.  Wallenstein  marked  his  way 
bv  cruel  devastation,  and  the  appeals  of  the  unhappy  pop- 
ulation persuaded  the  king  to  take  an  early  decision. 

The  people  of  Saxony  received  Gustavus  Adolphus  with 
great  enthusiasm,  of  which  they  gave  evidence  in  the  most 
exultant  manner.  People  were  seen  kneeling  everywhere 
on  his  way,  imploringly  stretching  their  hands  toward  him. 
The  king  was  not  content  with  their  exaggerated  devotion. 
**I  fear  that  God  is  offended  by  their  vain  demonstrations 
of  joy  and  soon  shall  show  them  that  the  one  whom  they 
adore  as  a  god  is  naught  but  a  weak  and  mortal  man." 

Wallenstein  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Leipsic,  at  the 
little  town  of  Lutzen.  He  had  sent  away  Pappenheim,  his 
best  sub-commander,  to  Halle  with  a  considerable  force. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  found  this  circumstance  favorable  and 
decided  on  an  attack. 

It  was  the  6th  of  November,  1632.  A  heavy  mist  cov- 
ered the  spacious  fields  around  Leipsic.  Wallenstein  was, 
with  the  right  wing  of  his  army,  close  on  Lutzen,  the  little 


»14  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

town  being  set  on  fire,  in  order  not  to  shield  a  clandestine 
attack.  The  flame  of  the  conflagration  appeared  dull  but 
magnified  through  the  mists  of  the  early  morning.  In 
front  of  the  imperial  army  was  the  highway.  Musketeers 
were  stationed  in  and  above  the  ditches,  which  were  made 
deeper  and  provided  with  ramparts.  The  musketeers  were 
so  arranged  that  higher  lines  could  shoot  over  the  heads  of 
the  lower  ooes.  Behind  them  was  another  chain  of  musket- 
eers. The  artillery  was  placed  partly  behind  the  musket- 
eers, partly  on  the  sides  of  a  hill  where  some  windmills 
were  situated.  The  cavalry  was  placed  on  the  wings,  the 
infantry  in  the  centre,  both  arranged  in  great  square  divis- 
ions. A  courier  had  been  sent  to  recall  Pappenheim,  as  the 
army  without  his  force  counted  only  18,000  men.  The 
Swedish  army  was  20,000  strong  and  was  arranged  accord- 
ing to  a  plan  similar  to  the  one  followed  at  Breitenfeld.  It 
was  arranged  in  two  lines.  Musketeers  were  interspersed 
among  the  cavalry.  The  regimental  artillery  was  placed 
before  the  front.  The  king  commanded  the  right  wing, 
Nils  Brahe  the  centre,  Kniephausen  the  second  line  of  the 
centre,  and  Duke  Bemhard  the  left  wing. 

The  king,  who  for  the  time  being  had  none  of  his  best 
officers  around  him,  spent  the  night  in  a  wagon,  together 
with  Duke  Bemhard  and  Kniephausen.  He  rose  in  the 
morning,  dressed,  without  armor,  in  a  blouse  and  a  gray 
coat,  and  mounted  his  usual  white  charger,  without  having 
tasted  food.  He  conducted  in  person  the  morning  prayers 
of  the  army,  when  Luther's  psalm,  **Eine  feste  Burg  ist 
unser  Gott,"  was  sung.  After  the  song  had  ceased,  the 
king  made  a  short  speech  in  Swedish,  which  he  repeated  in 
German.  He  said:  "There  you  have  the  enemy.  He  is 
not  now  at  the  top  of  the  hill  or  behind  intrenchments,  but 


,    HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  215 

in  the  open  field.  You  know  well  how  eagerly  he  has 
sought  to  avoid  a  conflict  and  that  he  is  forced  to  fight 
because  he  cannot  escape  us.  Fight,  then,  my  dear  country- 
men and  friends,  for  God,  your  country  and  your  king.  I 
will  reward  you  all.  But  if  you  flinch,  you  know  well  that 
not  a  man  of  you  will  ever  see  his  country  again."  Then 
the  psalm,  '*Versage  nicht  du  Hseuflein  klein,''  the  words 
of  which  were  written  in  German  by  Gustavus  Adolphus 
himself,  was  sung.  The  king  gave  the  sign  of  attack  by 
waving  his  sword  over  his  head  and  cried:  "Forward  in 
God's  name;  Jesu,  Jesu,  Jesu,  help  us  to-day  to  strive 
to  the  honor  of  thy  holy  name!'' 

It  was  eleven  o'clock,  and  the  mists  had,  to  a  great 
extent,  scattered.  The  Swedish  centre,  with  the  battery 
behind,  marched  toward  the  highway.  The  left  wing  made 
an  attempt  to  penetrate  between  the  burning  Lutzen  and 
the  batteries  below  the  windmills.  A  terrible  fire  from 
muskets  and  cannon  met  the  attacking  Swedes.  Whole 
lines  of  infantry  were  killed.  The  left  wing  suffered  in 
particular.  But  when  the  Swedes  reached  their  destina- 
tion, the  centre  moved  on  with  great  force,  cleaning  the 
ditches  of  musketeers,  capturing  seven  pieces  of  artillery 
and  making  two  of  the  great  squares  of  imperial  infantry 
retire  from  their  position.  While  fighting  the  third,  the 
Swedes  were  surprised  by  the  reserve  and  cavalry  forces 
of  the  enemy,  and  had  to  abandon  what  they  had  taken, 
retiring  into  the  open  field. 

The  king  had,  in  the  meantime,  with  the  cavalry  of  the 
right  wing,  forced  the  ditches.  When  notified  of  the  dan- 
ger in  which  the  centre  was  placed,  he  hurried  to  assist  his 
infantry.  At  the  head  of  his  Smaland  cavalry  he  moved 
on  so  quickly  that  he  was  separated  from  the  rest  of  his 


216  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

forces.  The  king  was  near-sighted  and  the  mist  once  more 
thickening.  For  these  reasons  he  happened  to  ride  close 
up  to  the  Unes  of  the  imperial  cuirassiers.  His  horse  was 
wounded,  and  the  king  himself  received  a  pistol  shot  in  the 
arm.  He  turned  to  one  of  his  companions,  Duke  Frantz 
Albrecht,  of  Sachsen-Lauenburg,  with  a  request  to  be  es- 
corted out  of  the  battle,  but  was  at  that  instant  wounded 
in  the  back,  immediately  falling  off  his  horse.  Duke  Frantz 
Albrecht,  only  thinking  of  saving  his  own  life,  fled  from  the 
spot.  But  a  German  page,  eighteen  years  of  age,  who  ac- 
companied the  king,  jumped  from  his  horse  and  tried  to 
assist  the  king  in  mounting  it.  Some  imperial  cavalrymen 
passed  by.  They  inquired  for  the  name  of  the  wounded 
lord.  The  page  tried  to  hide  his  identity,  but  Gustavus 
Adolphus  answered:  **I  was  once  the  king  of  Sweden." 
One  of  the  imperialists  attempted  to  drag  the  king  with 
him,  but  seeing  some  Swedish  soldiers  approaching,  he  sent 
in  leaving  a  bullet  through  the  wounded  hero's  brain. 

The  Swedes  had  been  thrown  back  from  the  highway 
all  over  the  line.  The  white  horse  of  the  king,  with  empty 
saddle  and  stained  with  blood,  was  seen  galloping  before 
the  front.  The  message  of  mourning  spread  with  Hghtning 
rapidity  through  the  army,  causing  imiversal  sorrow  and 
anger.  The  ambition  to  avenge  the  death  of  the  beloved 
king  was  kindled  in  every  breast.  Duke  Bernhard  at  once 
assumed  supreme  command  when  notified  of  the  catas- 
trophe. The  sagacious  Kniephausen  thought  the  battle  lost 
and  considered  it  best  to  retire  in  good  order.  The  duke 
answered:  "Here  is  not  the  question  of  retreat,  but  of  re- 
venge in  victory  or  death."  The  Swedish  line  of  battle 
soon  moved  forward  once  more  and  with  redoubled  strength. 
The  right  wing,  commanded  by  the  valiant   Stolhandske, 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  217 

threw  back  the  imperial  troops  who  had  caused  the  fall 
of  the  king.  Nils  Brahe  once  more  carried  the  troops  of  the 
centre  across  the  highway  and  captured  for  a  second  time 
the  seven  pieces  of  artillery.  The  left  wing,  commanded 
by  Duke  Bemhard,  also  moved  forward  victoriously,  cap- 
turing the  batteries  at  the  windmill  and  pointing  the  can- 
non toward  the  enemy.  When  simultaneously  some  wagons 
loaded  with  powder  for  the  imperial  artillery  exploded  with 
a  tremendous  roar,  the  whole  army  of  Wallenstein  waa 
thrown  into  a  state  of  confusion.  It  was  thought  that  the 
Swedes  had  made  an  attack  from  the  rear.  The  cavalry 
fled  in  great  numbers  with  the  cries:  **"We  know  the  king 
of  Sweden  I     He  is  worst  toward  the  end  of  the  day." 

But  now  another  cry  was  heard:  **Pappenheim  is  com- 
ing I  Pappenheim  is  coming!"  And  so  it  was.  Pappen- 
heim  arrived  with  his  vaHant  cavalry  at  this  important 
juncture.  *' Where  is  the  king  of  Sweden  to  be  found?" 
was  his  first  question.  When  told  that  Gustavus  Adolphus 
had  been  seen  leading  the  right  wing,  he  hurried  thither, 
not  knowing  the  fate  that  had  befallen  his  royal  enemy, 
and  desirous  of  fighting  him  face  to  face.  The  imperialists 
recommenced  the  battle  with  renewed  vigor.  The  scattered 
forces  of  cavalry  and  infantry  were  collected  once  more  and 
were  joined  by  the  fresh  troops  of  Pappenheim.  The  at- 
tacking Swedes  met  a  stanch  resistance.  The  latter  were 
almost  tired  out,  but  preserved  their  courage.  A  contem- 
porary writer  says  that  a  battle  was  never  fought  in  a  bet- 
ter way  by  troops  who  had  for  such  a  long  stretch  been  in 
the  fire.  The  Swedish  losses  were  exceedingly  heavy.  The 
royal  standard  and  several  other  banners  were  taken.  The 
able  Nils  Brahe  was  killed,  and  the  division  of  which  he 
was  the  head  fell  to  the  very  last  man.     But  Pappenheim, 

XX 10 


318  HISTORY   or  SWEDEN 

who  rushed  forward  blindly,  in  his  eagerness  to  meet  the 
king  of  Sweden,  was  also  killed,  according  to  tradition, 
by  a  bullet  from  Stolhandske.  **Pappenheim  has  fallen! 
All  is  lost  I"  shouted  his  men,  and  drew  back  discouraged. 
Wallenstein  still  thought  there  was  a  chance  to  hold  the 
field  against  the  exhausted  enemy. 

Kniephausen  had  preserved  the  second  line  of  battle  in 
good  order,  resolved  to  cover  the  retreat  he  thought  un- 
avoidable. He  had  sent  away  smaller  divisions  to  support 
the  first  line,  but  not  in  numbers  enough  to  disturb  the 
order  of  his  own  troops.  Now  he  commanded  his  men  to 
the  front,  to  fill  all  the  gaps  of  the  first  lines.  When  this 
was  done,  the  Swedes  made  a  third  attack.  The  evening 
sun  pierced  through  the  mists  for  a  moment,  and  Wallen- 
stein in  this  light  saw  the  Swedish  army  approach  in  a 
mighty  solid  line  as  at  the  opening  of  the  battle.  He  was 
greatly  surprised.  This  time  the  Swedes  were  resolved  to 
conquer  or  die.  Soldiers  were  heard  to  promise  each  other 
to  stand  by  that  resolution.  For  a  third  time  the  Swedes 
passed  the  highway  and  recaptured,  after  a  bloody  struggle, 
the  disputed  cannon.  The  wings  of  Wallenstein's  army 
were  both  in  a  state  of  dissolution.  But  his  centre  pre- 
served two  divisions  which  offered  a  stubborn  resistance 
until  sunset,  when  they  were  ordered  to  retreat.  The 
Swedes  had  won  the  day,  but  were  too  tired  to  pursue  the 
enemy.  Following  their  custom,  they  rested  over  the  night 
on  the  battlefield  they  had  bought  by  their  blood. 

The  loss  of  troops  had  been  heavy  on  either  side, 
amounting  to  about  6,000  men  altogether,  or  about  one- 
third  of  the  whole  number  of  men  engaged  in  the  battle. 
The  excitemeiit  was  so  great  on  both  sides  that  no  prisoners 
were  made.     The  corpse  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,   bruised 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  819 

and  mangled,  was  found  during  the  night  under  a  heap  of 
dead  soldiers.  A  large  monumental  stone,  with  inscription, 
now  marks  the  spot  where  the  hero  king  lost  his  life.  The 
Gustavus  Adolphus  Society  of  Germany  is  a  living  monu- 
ment to  his  memory. 


CHAPTER  XI 
Period  of  Political   Grandeur — Queen   Christine 

CHRISTINE  was  six  years  old  when  she  succeeded 
her  father.  Her  armies  stood  scattered  through 
foreign  lands,  surrounded  by  enemies  and  faithless 
alHes.  Her  country  was  covered  with  glory,  but  in  direst 
distress.  The  most  remarkable  aspect  of  her  father's  great- 
ness now  was  to  become  apparent.  Gustavus  Adolphus  had 
left  behind  men  whom  he  had  educated  as  statesmen,  and 
generals  capable  of  bringing  his  work  to  a  successful  end. 
First  among  the  former  was  the  state  chancellor,  Axel 
Oxenstiernay  the  friend  and  adviser  of  the  hero  king.  He 
managed  to  keep  the  Swedish  allies  together  and  to  estab- 
lish harmony  and  unity  of  action  between  the  Swedish  com- 
manders, supplying  funds  to  carry  on  the  war  and  strength- 
ening the  government  at  home  with  his  courage  and  his 
wisdom.  Oxenstiema  was  a  statesman  of  considerable 
power  before  the  death  of  the  king;  after  it  he  grows  in 
grandeur  to  carry  the  burden  of  unlimited  responsibility 
placed  on  his  shoulders.  His  coolness  and  dignity  were 
a  source  of  constant  irritation  to  Richelieu,  who  said  there 
was  "something  Gothic  and  a  good  deal  of  Finnish"  about 
his  proceedings  in  diplomatic  affairs,  while  Mazarin  said 
that  if  all  the  statesmen  of  his  time  were  to  be  put  aboard 
of  one  vessel,  Oxenstierna  should  be  placed  at  the  helm. 
(220) 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  221 

The  great  chancellor  always  upheld  the  dignity  of  his  coun- 
try. When  French  diplomatists  forgot  themselves  thus  far 
as  to  use,  in  correspondence,  their  own  language,  instead  of 
Latin,  the  recognized  language  of  diplomacy  in  that  day. 
Axel  Oxenstiema  gave  instructions  that  they  should  be 
answered  in  Swedish. 

After  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  war  in  Ger- 
many lost  more  and  more  of  its  original  aspect.  The  cause 
of  Protestantism  was  dropped  out  of  sight  for  political  inter- 
ests. The  battles  of  Sweden  were,  to  a  great  extent,  and 
sometimes  altogether,  fought  by  foreign  troops;  but  Swed- 
ish were  the  generals  and  statesmen  who  led  the  operations 
of  the  armies  and  the  diplomatic  deliberations.  The  success 
of  Sweden,  at  first,  seemed  to  have  passed  away  with  her 
great  hero  king.  The  imperialists  won  a  great  victory  at 
Ncerdlingen  in  1634.  The  young  archduke,  Ferdinand,  had 
succeeded  Wallenstein  as  their  commander-general,  the  lat- 
ter having  been  murdered  at  the  request  of  the  emperor. 
Ferdinand  marched  on  the  town  of  Ncerdlingen  with  an 
army  of  German  and  Spanish  troops,  the  experienced  Pic- 
colomini  being  at  his  side.  Duke  Bemhard,  who  with  an 
army  had  been  taking  possession  of  Franconia  in  his  own 
personal  interests,  hastened  to  support  the  town  and  was 
joined  by  Gustavus  Horn,  who,  with  another  army,  had 
been  stationed  in  Elsass.  Count  Horn  gave  the  advice  to 
await  reinforcements,  but  the  excitable  Duke  Bernhard 
opened  an  attack  on  the  enemy,  which  necessitated  an  imme- 
diate battle.  After  eight  hours  of  hard  fighting,  the  im- 
perialists, who  were  30,000  strong,  entirely  routed  the 
Swedish  army  of  18,000  men,  not  a  single  Swedish  regi- 
ment being  among  them.  Horn  was  made  a  prisoner. 
Duke  Bernhard,  who  soon  afterward  with  his  troops  entered 


222  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

French  service,  acknowledged  his  fault,  saying:  "I  was 
a  fool,  but  Horn  a  wise  man.*'  Sweden  lost  through  this 
terrible  defeat  an  army  and  two  able  generals.  The  Swed- 
ish conquests  in  South  Germany  were  lost,  and  the  German 
allies  were  scattered,  the  elector  of  Saxony  joining  the  cause 
of  the  emperor.  The  armistice  with  Poland  came  to  an  end 
in  1636,  and  it  was  renewed  for  twenty-six  years,  at  the 
cost  of  the  Prussian  seaports,  with  their  lucrative  revenues, 
which  had  paid  for  the  expenses  of  the  German  war.  Ox- 
ens  tierna  returned  to  Sweden  to  gather  means  wherewith 
to  continue  the  war.  The  ordinary  resources  of  Sweden 
were  drained,  and  great  sacrifices  were  needed.  The 
Riksdag  declared  itself  willing  to  **risk  life,  blood  and 
means,  until  God  grants  a  peace  equal  to  the  dignity  of 
Sweden." 

John  Ban^r  was  the  man  who  re-established  the  success 
of  the  Swedish  arms.  He  resembled  Gustavus  Adolphus 
in  greatness  of  mind  and  ability  in  war,  paying  back  the 
execution  of  his  father  under  Charles  IX.,  by  loyalty  to 
the  illustrious  son  of  the  latter.  Baner  was  a  typical  soldier 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  amiable,  but  licentious,  and  cruel 
to  his  enemies.  An  able  tactician  and  strategist  of  inex- 
haustible resources,  he  had  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Polish  war  and  later  held  many  important  commands.  The 
death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  stirred  this  strong  man  to  the 
very  depths  of  his  soul.  He  left  his  army  in  Bavaria  and 
arrived  at  Wolgast,  resolved  to  leave  the  army.  At  the 
sight  of  the  body  of  his  beloved  king,  he  was  overcome  by 
a  paroxysm  of  grief.  Axel  Oxenstierna  persuaded  him  to 
resume  his  command  in  order  to  bring  the  work  of  their 
dead  master  to  completion.  He  marched  with  his  army 
through    Silesia   to   Bohemia,    encamping    before   Prague. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  223 

After  the  battle  of  Ncerdlingen  he  retreated  to  Saxony, 
whose  deceitful  elector  he  reproached  with  harsh  words. 
Intrigues  by  the  latter  to  bring  the  German  troops  in  Swed- 
ish service  to  mutiny  were  frustrated  by  Ban^r,  who  had 
only  2,000  Swedes  and  Livonians  with  him.  The  Saxon 
army  followed  Ban^r  into  Mecklenburg,  but  suffered  a  de- 
feat at  Doemitz.  Baner  marched  eastward  and  joined  the 
Swedish  force,  which  met  him,  from  Prussia,  commanded 
by  Lennart  Torstensson.  The  elector  of  Brandenburg  also 
declared  war  on  Sweden,  Bandr  answering  by  invading  his 
country.  From  the  vicinity  of  Berlin,  Ban^r  continued  his 
way  through  Saxony  back  to  Mecklenburg,  his  German 
troops  marauding  with  such  cruelty  that  they  were  sharply 
remonstrated  with  by  Ban^r,  who  said  he  found  it  strange 
that  God  did  not  instantly  punish  them. 

Baner  was  followed  by  the  united  armies  of  Austria  and 
Saxony,  but,  having  received  reinforcements  of  Swedish 
troops,  he  turned  on  his  tracks  and  met  the  enemy  at  "Witt- 
stock,  in  Brandenburg,  September  24,  1636.  The  Swedish 
army  consisted  of  20,000  men,  while  the  opposing  force  was 
much  larger  and  occupied  a  favorable  position  on  a  hill. 
Ban^r  won  a  glorious  victory,  thanks  to  a  skilfully  executed 
manoeuvre.  It  grew  dark,  and  the  right  wing  of  the 
Swedes  was  leading  an  almost  forlorn  hope  against  the 
overwhelming  forces,  when  their  left  wing,  after  a  difficult 
roundabout  move,  attacked  the  enemy  from  behind.  Of 
the  hostile  armies  every  man  was  killed  except  a  detach- 
ment less  than  1,000  strong.  The  baggage,  artillery  and 
banners  were  taken,  even  the  table  silver  of  the  elector  and 
the  imperial  generals  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Swedes, 
who  by  this  victory  had  regained  their  supremacy  on  Ger- 
man soil. 


224  HISTORY   OF    SWEDEN 

Ban^r  had  commenced  the  siege  of  Leipsic,  when,  upon 
news  of  an  approaching  army  of  the  imperial  allies,  he  was 
.forced  to  undertake  the  famous  "Retreat  from  Torgau," 
which  made  him  more  celebrated  than  any  of  his  great  bat- 
tles. He  with  his  army  was  near  being  surrounded  at  the 
river  Oder,  but  saved  himself  through  a  series  of  movements 
of  the  highest  strategic  skill.  Cardinal  Richelieu  wrote  that 
**this  retreat,  by  means  of  which  Ban^r  saved  14,000  men, 
less  a  few  fugitives  and  wounded,  with  cannon  and  baggage, 
against  an  army  60,000  strong,  is  to  be  compared  to  the  most 
glorious  deeds  in  history."  The  enemy  prided  itself  on  hav- 
ing "caught  Ban^r  in  a  bag."  "Yes,"  said  Ban^r  later, 
"surely  they  had  me  there,  but  they  forgot  to  tie  the  string 
around." 

In  Pomerania,  Ban^r  received  the  reinforcements  from 
Sweden  which  he  had  awaited,  and  once  more  invaded 
Saxony,  where  he  won  a  grand  victory  at  Chemnitz,  in 
1639.  The  Swedish  army  invaded  Bohemia,  cruelly  de- 
vastating the  country.  Ban^r  made  a  daring  attack  upon 
Regensburg  in  order  to  make  the  emperor  and  the  whole 
German  diet  his  prisoners.  Sudden  thaws  frustrated  the 
plans,  making  it  impossible  for  the  Swedes  to  cross  the 
Danube.  A  superior  force  was  sent  to  meet  Ban^r,  who 
saved  his  army  by  another  famous  retreat  back  to  Saxony. 
On  the  way  Ban^r  was  attacked  by  a  fever  and  died  at  Hal- 
berstadt,  in  1641.  When  the  imperialists  learned  of  the 
death  of  the  Swedish  Leonidas,  they  thought  they  could 
easily  defeat  bis  army.  The  Swedes  saw  the  approaching 
enemy  and  collected  around  the  coffin  of  their  dead  hero, 
offering  solemn  pledges  to  fight  for  the  glory  of  his  name. 
They  then  made  a  sudden  attack  upon  the  imperial  army, 
which  suffered  a  thorough  defeat  at  Wolfenbuttel.     John 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  225 

Ban^r,  triumphant  in  death  like  his  great  master,  was  buried 
in  the  Swedish  Pantheon  of  the  Riddarholm. 

Ban^r  had  expressed  the  wish  that  Lennart  Torstensson 
should  succeed  him  as  commander-general  of  the  Swedish 
armies.  Lennart  Torstensson  was  a  greater  warrior  even 
than  John  Baner;  no  Swedish  general,  Gustavus  Adolphus 
not  excepted,  ever  reaching  higher  skill  or  perfection  in  the 
science  of  war  than  this  crippled  hero.  Torstensson  was 
of  a  noble  although  not  influential  family.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  as  a  body  page  to  the  king, 
later  distinguishing  himself  as  an  artillery  commander. 
Torstensson  took  an  honorable  part  in  the  battle  of  Breiten- 
feld,  but  made  a  prisoner  at  Nuremberg,  he  lost  his  health, 
during  one  year's  captivity,  in  a  miserable  dungeon.  During 
his  later  brilUant  career  he  suffered  greatly  from  rheuma- 
tism, and  was  mostly  carried  around  in  a  litter  throughout 
the  battles  which  covered  his  name  with  undying  fame. 
He  was  a  pious  man  of  a  gentle  and  cheerful  disposition, 
who  tried  his  utmost  to  reintroduce  among  his  troops  the 
excellent  moral  behavior  and  severe  discipUne  which  had 
been  lost  after  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

Torstensson  with  rigor  suppressed  the  intrigues  against 
Sweden  which  were  secretly  carried  on  within  the  army. 
Brandenburg  received  a  new  elector  in  Frederic  William, 
who,  ambitious  and  far-seeing,  entered  an  alliance  with  the 
victorious  power  of  the  North.  Torstensson  now  was  en- 
abled to  invade  the  imperial  crown  lands,  commencing  with 
Silesia ;  but  finding  it  necessary  to  force  a  battle  he  met  the 
imperialists  at  Breitenfeld.  October  23,  1642,  the  second 
great  victory  of  Breitenfeld  was  won  by  Swedish  arms. 
Archduke  Leopold  and  Piccolomini  led  the  imperial  army, 
the  latter  general  fighting  as  a  common  soldier  to  inspire 


32fl  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

courage  by  his  example,  but  with  no  effect.  The  Swedes 
captured  the  baggage,  cannon  and  banners  of  the  enemy, 
taking  5,000  prisoners  and  leaving  as  many  dead  imperial- 
ists on  the  field.  Torstensson  conquered  Leipsic  on  the 
following  day. 

Torstensson  marched  through  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
with  the  rapidity  which  characterized  all  his  military  move- 
ments, and  penetrated  to  the  very  gates  of  Vienna,  the  em- 
peror with  difficulty  saving  himself  from  being  made  his 
prisoner.  But  suddenly  he  left  and  marched  through  Silesia 
to  North  Germany.  He  had  received  an  order  from  the 
state  council  to  attack  Denmark.  The  great  chancellor  was 
out  of  patience  with  the  perfidy  and  intrigues  of  Christian 
IV.,  who  stood  in  secret  connection  with  every  one  of  Swe- 
den's enemies.  No  previous  declaration  of  war  was  made. 
Torstensson  captured  the  Danish  duchies  of  Schleswig  and 
Holstein  before  any  one  could  prevent  it,  his  army  then  tak- 
ing possession  of  all  Jutland.  Gustavus  Horn  invaded 
Scania,  almost  completely  capturing  the  whole  province  in 
spite  of  bands  of  freebooters  among  the  peasants,  called 
Snaphaner, 

Denmark  was  in  danger  of  its  very  existence,  but  King 
Christian  IV.  did  not  forget  his  old  wish  to  destroy  the 
town  of  Gothenburg,  whose  growing  prosperity  caused  him 
envy.  He  approached  Gothenburg  with  a  fleet,  and  viewed 
the  town  from  the  overlooking  mountain  of  the  Ramberg. 
His  demands  for  a  surrender  were  refused.  Patriotic  Louis 
de  G^eer  had  ordered  from  Holland  a  fleet  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, which  was  to  go  to  the  support  of  Gothenburg.  It 
did  not  arrive  in  time,  but  King  Christian  left  to  meet  it, 
and  it  later  proved  of  great  value  in  the  Swedish  move- 
ments at  sea,  joining  the  Swedish  fleet  in  the  Sound.     The 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  227 

latter,  consisting  of  twenty-two  ships  under  the  command 
of  Clas  Fleming,  sailed  to  the  Danish  waters,  capturing 
the  island  of  Femem,  supported  by  Torstensson.  An  inva- 
sion of  the  island  of  Funen  was  planned,  but  could  not  be 
effected.  A  great  naval  battle  between  the  Swedish  and 
Danish  fleets  was  fought  July  6th.  It  caused  great  loss 
on  either  side,  without  being  decisive.  King  Christian, 
who  commanded  his  naval  forces,  lost  one  eye  and  received 
over  twenty  different  wounds.  The  Swedes  kept  the  place 
of  battle,  but  sought  the  Bay  of  Skiel  for  repairs,  where 
they  were  hedged  in  by  the  Danish  fleet.  Clas  Fleming 
encouraged  his  followers  to  cut  through  the  line,  in  which 
they  were  successful.  A  month  later  he  was  killed  by  a 
shot  from  the  coast  of  Holstein,  where  the  Danes  had  erected 
a  fort.  The  Swedes  avenged  the  death  of  their  valiant 
commander  by  destroying  the  fort  and  killing  its  defenders. 
Fleming  was  succeeded  by  Charles  Gustavus  "Wrangel,  who 
saved  the  fleet  to  Sweden,  returning  to  Femern  in  the  au- 
tumn, joined  by  the  Dutch  fleet  of  Louis  de  Geer.  The 
Danish  fleet  was  met  with  October  13th,  and  at  once  scat- 
tered. The  swift-sailing  Dutch  ships  went  in  pursuit  and 
destroyed  all  the  seventeen  Danish  ships  but  two,  which 
brought  the  news  of  the  disaster  to  Copenhagen. 

King  Christian,  who  had  in  vain  expected  support  from 
the  emperor,  found  himself  defeated  on  every  point,  and 
had  no  other  choice  than  to  make  peace.  The  treaty  was 
signed  August  13,  1645,  at  Broemsebro,  Denmark  ceding 
the  provinces  of  Jemtland  and  Herjedal  and  the  islands 
of  Gothland  and  OEsel.  The  province  of  Halland  was  to 
remain  for  thirty  years  in  the  possession  of  Sweden,  which 
country  was  exempt  from  duties  of  toll  for  the  traffic  in  the 
Sound.     Denmark  disavowed  all  claims  of  supremacy  over 


228  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Holstein,  the  duke  of  said  country  two  yeavs  later  formally 
placing  himself  under  Swedish  protection. 

Lennart  Torstensson  had  fulfilled  his  task  in  Denmark 
and  returned  to  Germany.  At  Jueterbogk,  in  Branden- 
burg, he  met  the  imperial  army,  which  had  been  sent  to 
cut  off  his  retreat  from  Denmark,  and  entirely  routed  it. 
After  this  victory  Torstensson  hastened  to  Bohemia,  resolved 
to  •*  attack  the  emperor  in  his  heart  and  force  him  to  make 
peace."  At  Jankowitz,  in  Bohemia,  Torstensson  adminis- 
tered a  new  and  crushing  defeat  to  the  imperialists,  in  1645. 
The  emperor,  who  himself  had  ordered  his  army  to  battle, 
had  arrived  in  Prague  to  witness  the  defeat  of  the  Swedes, 
which  the  Holy  Virgin  had  promised  him  in  a  dream.  He 
soon  learned  the  news,  which  was  quite  different  from  that 
expected.  The  imperial  couMnander-general,  five  generals 
and  eight  colonels  were  made  prisoners  by  the  Swedes,  who 
captured  the  artillery  and  baggage  of  the  enemy.  The 
health  of  Torstensson  was  at  that  moment  so  good  that  he 
was  able  to  lead  the  movements  on  horseback.  He  said 
that  such  a  bloody  battle  would  not  be  seen  for  a  long  time. 

Torstensson  invaded  Moravia,  the  fortresses  surrendering 
and  the  inhabitants  fleeing  in  terror.  For  a  second  time 
he  stood  at  the  waUs  of  Vienna.  The  very  fortifications 
which  protected  the  bridge  across  the  Danube  were  capt- 
ured by  the  Swedes.  The  enemy,  whom  the  elector  of 
Saxony  had  promised  to  chase  out  of  Germany,  was  now 
knocking  at  the  gate  of  the  emperor,  who  heard  the  report 
with  consternation.  But  Lennart  Torstensson  was  forced 
to  surrender  to  a  perfidious  enemy,  who  came  to  his  door 
without  knocking.  His  rheumatic  ailment  returned  with 
such  violence  that  he  was  obliged  to  renounce  his  command 
and  return  from  the  fields  where  he  had  led  none  but  vie- 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  239 

torious  armies.  He  was  succeeded  by  Charles  Gustavus 
Wrangel.  The  latter  had  to  give  up  the  siege  of  Vienna, 
but  maintained,  in  connection  with  the  French,  the  suprem- 
acy in  Germany  until  an  honorable  peace  was  won.  Upon 
his  return  to  Sweden,  Lennart  Torstensson  was  covered 
with  distinctions,  being  made  a  baron  and  a  count  on  one 
and  the  same  day.  He  was  appointed  governor-general 
of  West  Gothland,  Yermland,  and  the  lately  conquered 
Halland,  with  his  seat  at  Gothenburg,  where  he  built  him- 
self a  palace  (still  the  official  residence  of  the  governor  of 
Gothenburg  and  Bohuslsen).  Lennart  Torstensson  died 
in  1651,  leaving  behind  the  fame  of  one  of  the  greatest  war- 
riors known  to  history,  and  a  spotless  memory. 

The  treaty  of  peace  of  Westphalia  was  signed  in  Octo- 
ber, 1648.  The  representatives  of  Sweden  were  John  Ox- 
enstierna,  a  son  of  the  great  chancellor,  and  Adler  Salvius. 
Sweden  received,  as  a  reward  for  her  decisive  and  glorious 
part  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  following  possessions: 
West  Pomerania,  with  the  islands  of  Rugen  and  Usedom$ 
the  western  part  of  East  Pomerania,  with  the  island  of 
Wollin;  the  town  of  Wismar,  with  surrounding  territory, 
and  the  bishoprics  of  Bremen  and  Verden.  With  these 
German  possessions  followed  three  votes  at  the  German 
Diet.  The  Swedish  government  was  to  receive  a  sum  of 
several  millions  to  defray  the  army  expenses,  of  which 
Queen  Christine  recklessly  ceded  the  larger  part. 

Through  these  glorious  conditions  of  peace  Sweden  rose 
to  the  rank  of  one  of  the  mightiest  of  European  empires, 
which  held  the  balance  of  power  in  Northern  Europe.  Her 
possessions  made  the  Baltic  almost  an  "inland  lake  of  Swe- 
den," and  efforts  soon  followed  to  make  it  completely  so. 
Sweden  exerted  a  beneficent  influence  throughout  her  large 


230  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

possessions,  which,  from  a  cultural  point  of  view,  hardly 
can  be  overestimated.  Her  methods  of  planting  the  seeds 
of  culture,  by  establishing  Swedish  and  German  universi- 
ties, and  by  abolishing  serfdom  in  the  conquered  lands,  are 
worthy  of  the  highest  respect.  But  with  her  new  political 
grandeur  Sweden  acquired  formidable  enemies;  she  had 
not  the  resources  to  sustain  or  defend  her  great  possessions, 
and  the  development  of  the  mother  country  was  for  a  time 
misdirected  by  dreams  of  vain  glory. 

The  government  of  Sweden  during  Christine's  minority, 
according  to  the  directions  left  by  her  father,  consisted  of 
the  five  highest  officials  of  the  realm.  Among  these  the 
chancellor,  through  his  experience  and  his  former  intimacy 
with  Gustavus  Adolphus,  was  the  leading  spirit,  king  in  all 
except  the  name,  and  deserving  the  honorable  surname  of 
"our  greatest  civilian,"  given  him  by  Swedish  historians. 
Unlike  the  majority  of  other  uncrowned  or  crowned  rulers, 
he  did  not  use  his  power  to  secure  wealth  or  distinction  for 
himself  and  his  family  until  upon  his  retirement.  Offers 
to  make  him  a  ruling  prince  of  Germany,  and  the  young 
queen  his  son's  consort,  were  coldly  refused.  While  the 
war  was  going  on  he  strengthened  the  foundations  of  the 
centralization  of  the  state  by  the  government  regulations 
of  1634.  At  the  side  of  the  supreme  court  of  Stockholm 
another  was  established  at  Jcenkoeping,  for  Gothaland,  with 
a  state  councillor  as  president.  The  system  of  various  gov- 
ernment departments  was  enlarged  upon.*  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  was  the  chancery,  in  which  all  business  to 
come  before  the  government  was  prepared.  Departments 
for  commerce  and  for  mining  were  established.     Sweden 

*  These  were  not  departments  in  the  sense  of  bureaus,  but  collegia. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  231 

was  divided  into  eleven  administrative  districts,  Icen,  later 
increased  to  sixteen,  each  of  these  having  a  governor.  Fin- 
land was  divided  into  five  districts.  Count  Peter  Brahe 
the  Younger,  as  governor-general  of  Finland,  did  more  for 
this  neglected  country  than  was  ever  done  before  to  right 
wrongs  and  foster  prosperity.  Livonia  and  Ingermanland 
received  each  their  governor-general,  the  latter  province, 
by  repeated  wars  brought  into  a  devastated  condition,  serv- 
ing as  a  place  of  deportation.  This  system  of  administra- 
tion won  the  admiration  of  the  Continent  and  was  in  many 
instances  copied  as  a  pattern  of  perfection.  The  Swedish 
army  was  considered  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  troops 
better  trained  or  more  victorious  did  not  exist.  At  the  end 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  about  100,000  men  were  under 
Swedish  command.  The  majority  of  these  were  foreigners, 
who  afterward  were  enlisted  for  continual  service.  Their 
officers  were  raised  in  great  numbers  to  the  rank  of  nobles 
and  endowed  with  dignities  and  estates.  The  army  was 
divided  into  twenty  regiments,  seven  of  which  were  Finnish. 
The  town  and  coast  population  regularly  furnished  able 
men  for  the  navy.  Much  was  done  to  improve  the  interior 
communications  by  means  of  new  roads  and  canals.  A 
postal  route  was  established  between  Stockholm  and  Goth- 
enburg, and  others  followed.  A  Swedish  postmaster  in 
Hamburg  had  charge  of  the  foreign  mails.  Newspapers 
were  published,  the  government  shaping  for  itself  an  organ 
for  official  announcement  which  is  yet  published. 

Great  improvements  were  made  in  the  mining  industry, 
thanks  principally  to  the  efforts  of  the  noble  immigrant, 
Louis  de  Geer  and  his  Walloons,  who  made  the  mines  of 
Dannemora  a  source  of  riches.  Weapons  and  cannon  were 
manufactured  not  only  for  the  army,  but  for  exportation 


232  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

also.  The  brass  foundries  were  excellent.  The  towns  be- 
gan to  flourish,  especially  Stockholm  and  Gothenburg, 
through  commerce  with  Holland  and  the  Baltic  States.  A 
Swedish  colony,  planned  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  through 
the  South  Company,  created  by  him  in  Gothenburg,  was 
founded  in  North  America.  In  1638  two  ships,  **Kalmar 
Nyckel"  and  "Fogel  Grip,"  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Delaware  River,  where  territory  was  procured  through 
honest  purchase  from  the  Indians.  The  Dutch  in  neigh- 
boring colonies  tried  to  persuade  the  Indians  to  oust  the 
newcomers,  but  the  Swedish  governor,  Peter  Menuet,  won 
their  goodwill  by  fair  dealing.  The  members  of  the  colony 
of  New  Sweden  were  honest,  upright  people,  who  dwelt  in 
peace  with  the  natives.  They  accepted  a  governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  government,  in  the  person  of  John  Printz, 
but  refused  to  tolerate  among  themselves  criminals  who 
later  were  despatched  to  their  colony,  and  these  had  to  be 
taken  back.  New  Sweden  after  a  few  decades  became  the 
prey  of  the  Dutch,  but  many  American  families  point  with 
justifiable  pride  to  their  descent  from  these  honest  and  in- 
dustrious Swedish  settlers.  A  Swedish  colony  on  the  coast 
of  African  Guinea  existed  between  1650  and  1663,  but  was 
through  treacherous  dealings  turned  over  to  the  Dutch. 

Much  was  done  to  build  up  the  educational  system, 
several  new  colleges  were  established,  and  regulations  made 
to  instruct  the  peasants.  Peter  Brahe  founded  the  Univer- 
sity of  Abo,  in  1640,  while  in  Finland,  and  the  German 
University  of  Greifswald,  in  Swedish  Pomerania,  was  re- 
established, Swedish  men  of  learning  began  to  attract 
attention,  such  as  John  Skytte,  who  was  considered  the 
most  brilliant  Latin  scholar  of  Europe  in  his  day,  Stiern- 
hoek,  the  jurist,  Bureus  and  Messenius,  the  historians,  and 


mSTORY   OF   SWEDEN  233 

Georg  Stiemhielm,  poet  and  antiquarian.  The  old  Ice- 
landic literature  was  discovered  and  began  to  exert  a  strong 
influence  on  literature  and  science,  to  a  great  extent 
strengthening  their  chauvinistic  spirit.  The  Swedish  poets 
Stiernhielm,  Runius,  Holmstrcem,  Lucidor  and  the  poetess 
Brenner,  from  the  Eddie  songs,  which  contain  some  of  the 
oldest  humorous  poems  in  existence,  learned  how  to  write 
in  a  humorous  vein,  something  entirely  unknown  in  the 
German  and  French  literatures  of  that  day. 

The  excellent  government,  of  which  Axel  Oxenstierna 
was  the  leading  spirit,  had  its  defects.  In  its  perfect  sys- 
tem of  administration,  which  in  the  main  features  stands 
unshaken  to  this  day,  there  appeared  to  be  no  room  for 
the  people  themselves  to  be  governed.  On  account  of  the 
great  allowances  made  to  the  nobles  it  was  necessary  to 
increase  the  taxes  of  the  peasants.  Many  had  to  leave 
their  homes  and  farms  for  want  of  resources  to  pay  their 
taxes;  others  were  forced  away  from  their  property  by  the 
nobles.  There  was  danger  of  the  destruction  of  the  free, 
self-dependent  yeomanry.  A  hatred  against  the  nobility 
grew  up.  The  great  lords  returned  from  the  wars  laden  with 
booty,  erected  fine  castles,  and  continued  the  high  living 
to  which  they  had  become  accustomed  while  abroad.  The 
power  of  the  nobility  was  increased  by  lavish  donations  from 
Queen  Christine  and  by  the  appropriation  of  other  crown 
lands  which  the  government  was  forced  to  sell  or  mortgage 
on  accoimt  of  the  wars.  The  clergy  were  the  spokesmen 
of  the  peasant  class  at  the  Riksdag,  every  year  demanding 
with  greater  emphasis  a  restitution  to  the  crown  of  its  prop- 
erty, which  was  held  by  the  nobles. 

Queen  Christine  herself  took  the  reins  of  government, 
in  1644,  at  the  age  of  eighteen.     She  had  inherited  from 


234  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

her  illustrious  father  some  of  his  genius,  and  from  her 
mother,  Marie  Eleonore  of  Brandenburg,  a  peculiar  nervous 
disposition.     Her  mother  took  no  interest  in  her  until  the 
death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  when  a  flood  of  exalted  ten- 
derness suddenly  was  let  loose  over  her.     Count  Jacob  de 
la  Gardie  took  the  lead  in  opposing  the  undesirable   and 
unstable  character  of  this  relation,   Christine   being  sepa- 
rated from  her  mother  and  educated  by  the  Countess- Pala- 
tine Catherine,  a  pious  and  noble  woman,  the  older  sister 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus.     Greatly  offended,  Marie  Eleonore 
left  the  country  never  to  return.     Queen  Christine  showed 
a  remarkable  faculty  of  absorbing  knowledge.     Well  versed 
in  a  great  number  of  languages,  and  well  read  in  various 
sciences,  particularly  mathematics,  she  soon  acquired  fame 
as  the  most  learned  woman  of  her  time.     She  was  of  frank 
countenance,  slept   little,   cared   little  for   dress,    and  was 
passionately   fond  of    hunting    and    riding  on   horseback. 
Queen  Christine   possessed    a  sharp  intellect,   was   daring 
and  resolute,  but  headstrong,  fickle,  extravagant,  and  but 
httle  particular  in  her  choice  of  favorites.     Her  vanity  and 
egotism  knew  no  bounds.     At  the  beginning  of  her  reign 
she  took  pains  to  give  serious  attention  to  the  affairs  of 
state.     The  great   chancellor   had   been   her   instructor  in 
economics  and  statecraft,  but  she  repaid  him  by  open  cold- 
ness and  secret  antagonism.     Her  ambition  to  surround  her- 
self with  scientists  of  note,  particularly  foreigners  who  flat- 
tered her  vanity  by  blowing  her  fame  to  the  four  corners 
of  the  earth,  killed  her  interest  for  politics.     Later  she  was 
seized  by  the  evil  spirit  of  frivoHty,  abandoning  herself  to 
empty  pleasures  and  to  excesses  of  extravagance  when  her 
learned    admirers  were    forgotten   for  unworthy  favorites. 
Among  the  latter.  Count  Magnus  Gabriel  de  la  Gardie  wag 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  235 

for  a  long  time  all-powerful.  The  grandson  of  General 
Pontus  and  a  daughter  of  John  III.,  he  was  the  son  of 
Count  Jacob  de  la  Gardie  and  Ebba  Brahe,  and  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  noblemen  of  Europe.  In  his  youth  he  formed 
an  intimate  friendship  with  the  dauphin  of  France,  later 
Louis  XIV.,  who  throughout  his  life  honored  him  with  the 
title  of  '*Mon  Cousin,"  or  "Mon  cher  Cousin."  His  ambi- 
tion to  become  Queen  Christine's  consort  was  never  satis- 
fied, nor  was  he  allowed  to  accept  the  rank  of  a  prince 
from  the  German  emperor,  but  the  queen  made  him  the 
richest  man  in  her  realm.  Magnus  de  la  Gardie  did  not 
possess  the  sterling  qualities  of  his  ancestors,  but  was  of 
great  patriotism  and  lavishly  liberal  toward  educational 
institutions,  in  this  respect  without  a  peer  in  Swedish  his- 
tory. In  1666  he  founded  the  Academy  of  Antiquities, 
which  was  the  first  archaeological  institution  in  Europe, 
the  Swedish  antiquarians  of  the  day,  principal  among  them 
Bureus  and  Stiernhielm,  doing  valuable  antiquarian  re- 
search. In  1664,  Count  de  la  Gardie  donated  to  the  Uni- 
versity Library  of  XJpsala  a  highly  valuable  collection  of 
manuscripts  and  books,  chiefly  from  Iceland.  In  the  collec- 
tion was  also  the  Gothic  Bible  translation  of  Bishop  Wulfila 
in  the  only  copy  extant.  Liberal  with  his  silver,  Count  de 
la  Gardie  gave  to  the  precious  book  a  silver  binding,  as  he 
had  in  earlier  years  presented  to  Queen  Christine  a  silver 
throne  (which  is  still  in  use).  This  book  has  an  interesting 
history  of  its  own. 

Codex  Argenteus,  the  silver  book,  thus  called  on  ac- 
count of  its  silver  binding,  contains  fragments  of  the  four 
Gospels  in  the  Gothic  language.  The  translation  was  made 
from  the  Greek  original  by  Bishop  Wulfila  (b.  318-d.  388), 
the  apostle  of  the  Goths.     The  writing  is  done  in  so-called 


«36  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

encanstmn  (printing  with  heated  stamps)  of  gold  and  silver 
letters  on  vellum  of  scarlet  color.  This  copy  is  considered 
to  have  been  made  toward  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  when  the  East  Goths  still 
held  sway  in  Italy.  Its  early  fortunes  are  unknown,  but 
it  is  supposed  that  the  book  was  found  in  the  possession  of 
the  Visigoths  (or  West  Goths)  when  their  empire  was  seized 
by  the  Franks,  and  donated  to  the  monastery  of  Verden  by 
some  munificent  Frankish  chief.  Here,  in  the  Benedictine 
abbey  of  Verden,  on  the  river  Ruhr,  in  Westphalia,  the 
book  was  discovered  at  least  as  early  as  1554,  when  the 
scholars  Cassander  and  Gualther  of  Cologne  are  known  to 
have  had  copies  which  can  have  been  made  from  no  other 
source. 

After  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  Co- 
dex was  transmitted  to  Prague  for  safety.  In  the  year  of 
1648,  Prague,  or  rather  the  older  portion  of  the  town,  was 
captured  by  the  Swedish  general,  Coimt  Hans  Christopher 
Koenigsmark,  who,  among  the  vast  treasures  of  the  Bohe- 
mian capital,  found  also  the  Codex  Argenteus  which  he 
presented  to  Queen  Christine.  All  the  books  and  manu- 
scripts of  the  queen  were  in  the  care  of  her  librarian,  Isaac 
Vossius,  a  learned  but  eccentric  scholar  of  Dutch  parentage. 
Vossius  was  at  first  Queen  Christine's  teacher  of  Greek,  not 
a  very  agreeable  position,  for  the  queen  called  him  to  the 
castle  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  for  her  first  hour. 
In  1650  he  had  to  leave  court  and  country  on  account  of  a 
quarrel  with  that  light  of  learning,  Claude  de  Saumaise 
(Salmasius),  another  one  of  the  foreign  scholars  in  favor 
with  the  queen.  In  1653  he  was  called  back,  and  again  took 
charge  of  the  books  of  the  queen,  but  soon  returned  to  Hol- 
land.    Before  his  departure  he  gathered  several  costly  books 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  237 

and  manuscripts,  among  which  Codex  Argenteus,  with  or 
without  the  queen's  private  permission,  taking  them  with 
him.  In  1670,  Vossius  came  to  England,  where  he  died, 
in  1688,  as  court  chaplain  at  Windsor.  King  Charles  II.  of 
England  said  of  him:  "Vossius  believes  in  anything  but  the 
Bible." 

When  in  Holland,  the  Codex  Argenteus  passed  out  of 
the  hands  of  Vossius  after  his  uncle  Franziskus  Junius  had 
made  a  complete  copy  of  it.  Junius,  called  the  "grand- 
father of  modern  philology,"  published  the  first  edition 
of  Codex  Argenteus  at  Dortrecht,  in  1665,  providing  the 
beautiful  fac-simile  with  parallel  Old  English  texts  and  a 
Gothic  glossary.  In  Holland  the  Codex  changed  hands 
repeatedly  until  found  in  Brabant  by  Samuel  Pufendorff, 
in  1661,  who,  in  the  following  year,  bought  it  for  Count 
de  la  Gardie,  paying  a  sum  of  something  like  1 1,200 
for  it. 

Once  more  in  Sweden  the  Codex  Argenteus  was  made 
the  subject  of  close  attention,  a  new  edition  of  it  being  pub- 
lished, in  1671,  by  Georg  Stiernhielm,  the  innovator  of 
Swedish  language  and  literature.*  That  Bishop  Wulfila's 
Bible  should  ultimately  harbor  in  Sweden  does  not  seem 
out  of  place,  for  of  all  languages  now  spoken  the  Swedish 


'  Through  the  efforts  of  the  Swedish  scholar,  Eric  Benzelius,  Junior, 
a  third  edition  was  published  at  Windsor  in  1750.  J.  K.  Kohn's  edition 
dates  from  1805,  founded  on  the  works  of  the  Swedish  scholars  Sotberg* 
and  Ihre.  Of  later  editions,  the  one  by  Professor  A.  Uppstroem,  of 
Upsala,  of  1854  to  1857,  is  considered  to  be  the  standard  one.  A  fine 
American  edition  has,  in  recent  years,  been  published  by  Dr.  G.  H.  Balg, 
of  Mayville,  Wis.  The  history  of  Codex  Argenteus,  after  once  for  all 
being  placed  in  the  University  Library  of  Upsala,  has  not  been  al- 
together uneventful.  In  1884  ten  of  the  187  leaves  were  stolen  and  re- 
mained missing  for  twenty-three  years.  One  of  the  trusted  janitorial 
attendants  of  the  library  had  taken  them  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  a 
great  sum  of  money  for  them,  but  later  dared  not  dispose  of  them.  On 
bis  death-bed  he  surrendered  the  stolen  leaves. 


1S9S  HISTORY    OP   SWEDEN 

comes  closest  to  the  language  of  the  Goths  as  crystallized 
during  its  classical  epoch.  The  interest  taken  by  Swedish 
scholars  in  the  book  has  always  been  great  and  fruitful  of 
results,  in  times  when  it  was  thought  to  be  written  in  the 
mother  tongue  of  all  the  Teutonic  languages,  as  well  as 
later,  when  Gothic  was  found  to  be,  not  the  mother,  but 
the  oldest  sister  in  the  family. 

At  the  Riksdag  of  1649  considerable  dissatisfaction  was 
directed  against  the  nobility  and  the  extravagance  of  the 
queen  in  deeding  over  to  favorites  all  the  possessions  of  the 
crown,  in  form  of  counties  and  baronies.  The  nobility 
sided  against  the  queen,  desirous  of  reducing  her  power. 
But  Queen  Christine  received  gracefully  the  complaints 
made,  and  promised  to  institute  a  reduction  of  taxes  and 
payments.  In  the  following  year  the  commotion  increased 
when  the  same  taxes  were  asked  as  in  time  of  war.  The 
queen  continued  her  policy  of  earnestly  considering  the 
requests  of  the  lower  Estates,  thus  gaining  the  controlling 
power.  The  nobility,  suffering  strife  between  its  various 
classes,  was  forced  to  seek  a  shelter  in  the  royal  power  it 
desired  to  crush,  and  humiliated  itself  before  the  queen. 
Christine  received  a  joint  appeal  from  the  lower  Estates 
for  a  restitution  to  the  crown  of  all  property  illegally  turned 
over  to  the  nobility,  but  she  managed  to  have  the  reform 
postponed  upon  promise  of  some  minor  privileges  and  a 
reduction  of  taxes.  She  refused  the  appeals  of  the  nobility 
to  have  the  clergymen  and  others  punished  who  had  used 
bard  language  against  the  aristocrats.  But  the  discontent 
was  spreading  and  turned  against  the  queen  personally. 
The  ministers  preached  against  the  wrongs  and  violence 
of  the  mighty  ones ;  the  nobles  and  the  peasants  threatened 
each  other.     Peasants  in  Finland  refused  to  work  for  aristo- 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  239 

cratic  masters,  and  a  general  rebellion  seemed  imminent. 
In  the  meantime  Queen  Christine  was  crowned  at  Upsala 
amid  great  display  and  elaborate  festivities,  the  coimt-pala- 
tine  Charles  Gustavus,  her  cousin,  being  installed  as  heir- 
apparent  to  the  throne. 

But  Queen  Christine  was  not  able  to  still  the  storm 
arouud  her.  The  finances  of  the  crown  were  utterly  ruined 
by  her  extravagance,  and  she  dared  not  take  by  violence 
from  the  nobility  what  she  had  given  by  grace.  In  1651 
she  declared  it  to  be  her  intention  to  leave  the  government, 
but  was  persuaded  to  remain.  Her  cousin  was  placed  in  a 
very  difficult  position,  apparently  taking  no  interest  in  what 
was  going  on,  but  following  everything  with  the  keenest 
attention.  The  son  of  John  Casimir,  count  of  Palatinate- 
Zweibrucken,  and  Princess  Catherine,  he  was  born  at  Ny- 
koeping  in  Sweden,  in  1622,  and  designated  as  the  future 
consort  of  Queen  Christine.  Charles  Gustavus  was  edu- 
cated in  simplicity  and  rigor,  and  was,  as  his  father  before 
him,  utterly  neglected  by  Axel  Oxenstierna  and  the  govern- 
ment. He  slept  in  a  room  without  wallpaper,  and  when 
through  with  his  lessons  he  sawed  wood  with  his  teacher, 
Professor  Lenseus.  Burning  with  ambition,  and  perhaps 
also  in  love  with  his  brilliant  cousin,  he  proposed  to  her 
repeatedly,  but  in  vain.  After  several  years  of  extensive 
travel  he  joined  Lennart  Torstensson,  refusing  a  command 
and  working  himself  up  through  the  military  degrees.  He 
took  an  honorable  part  in  the  victory  at  Jankowitz,  and 
was  appointed  supreme  commander  of  the  Swedish  armies 
shortly  before  the  close  of  the  German  war.  When  the 
opposition  against  Christine  reached  its  climax  a  good  deal 
was  expected  from  Charles  Gustavus,  which  he,  on  account 
of  his  singular  position,  could  not  undertake  to  do.     A  peti- 


f40  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

tion  replete  with  abusive  language  about  the  qneen  was  sent 
him,  asking  him  to  take  hold  of  the  government.  Charles 
turned  the  document  over  to  the  queen.  Its  author,  the 
promising  young  Arnold  Meesenius,  and  his  father,  an  able 
historian,  suspected  as  having  inspired  his  son,  were  ac- 
cused of  high  treason,  oondenmed  to  death  and  executed. 
This  act  of  force  produced  an  impression,  and  the  new 
taxes  demanded  at  the  next  Riksdag  were  granted  without 
opposition.  But  the  queen  felt  that  the  discontent  was  only- 
subdued,  not  suppressed,  and,  having  no  further  means  to 
keep  up  a  luxurious  court,  she  did  the  wisest  act  of  her 
reign,  that  of  resigning,  at  Upsala,  in  June,  1654,  Charles 
Gustavus  being  crowned  the  same  day.  The  scene  of  her 
abdication  was  very  impressive,  Queen  Christine  carrying 
herself  with  noble  and  lofty  dignity,  an  inheritance  from 
her  father  which  she  made  use  of  when  she  saw  fit.  Leav- 
ing the  crown  and  the  royal  emblems,  one  by  one,  to  the 
Riksdrotset,  she  descended  the  throne,  from  the  lowest  steps 
of  which  she  spoke  an  eloquent  and  touching  farewell  to 
the  four  Estates  of  the  Riksdag.  She  suddenly  left  the 
country  after  having  secured  for  herself  a  princely  income. 
At  Innsbruck,  the  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  joined 
the  Catholic  church,  thereby,  and  by  her  fame  as  a  learned 
woman,  creating  a  sensation.  She  died  in  Rome  in  1689, 
after  having  made  two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  regain  her 
Swedish  throne,  and  one  equally  unsuccessful  to  succeed 
the  last  king  of  the  Polish  line  of  the  Vasa  dynasty,  and 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter. 

Among  the  many  learned  men  who  at  one  time  sur- 
roimded  Christine  were  Vossius,  Heinsius,  Salmasius,  Huet, 
Freinshemius,  Loccenius,  Meibom,  Boeclerus,  Ravius,  Schef- 
ferus,  and  others.     The  greatest  of  them  all,  the  philoso- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  241 

pher  Cartesius    (Rene   Descartes),    died  in   Stockholm,   in 
1650. 

After  the  love-story  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  had  come 
to  an  end,  he  long  felt  a  disinclination  to  marry.  His  sister 
Catherine  is  said  to  have  tried  to  rouse  him  to  the  necessity 
of  choosing  a  consort.  His  answer  was  always:  "Never 
mind,  dear  sister,  you  shall  yourself  bring  up  a  son  to  in- 
herit the  crown  and  continue  my  work."  This  son  of  Cath- 
erine became  Queen  Christine's  successor. 


XX 11 


CHAPTER   XII 

Period  of  Political   Grandeui — Charles  X,   and 
Charles  XL 

CHARLES  X.  was  one  of  the  most  ambitious  men 
ever  placed  upon  a  throne,  and  Europe  was  soon 
to  reaUze  that  a  new  war-lord  was  come.  His  am- 
bition, so  long  unsatisfied  and  secreted,  burst  forth  with 
uncontrollable  strength,  in  compass  only  to  be  equalled  by 
his  rare  gifts  of  mind  and  heart.  Charles  Qustavus  had 
suffered  a  good  deal  of  neglect,  coldness  and  hatred,  but 
when  ascending  the  throne  he  seemed  to  have  forgotten  all 
this.  Oxenstierna  died  a  few  months  after  the  abdication 
of  Queen  Christine,  deeply  impressed  by  the  magnanimity 
and  genius  of  the  new  sovereign.  Charles  Gustavus  was 
one  of  the  most  highly  gifted  of  Swedish  monarchs.  He 
had  a  great  deal  of  interest  in  and  rare  discernment  for  the 
requirements  of  a  peaceful  development.  But  reared  in 
the  most  warlike  of  times,  when  a  reputation  could  be  made 
only  by  winning  so  and  so  many  "victorias'*  for  the  firm 
establishment  of  a  hero's  *'gloire,"  Charles  Gustavus 
thought  that  only  the  monarch  favored  by  "Fama"  would 
have  the  prestige  to  lead  firmly  the  fate  of  his  people.  He 
often  expressed  the  wish  to  rest  from  his  campaigns  in  order 
to  contemplate  his  work  and  make  it  beneficial  to  his  people, 
but  such  a  rest  he  never  gave  himself  time  to  enjoy  during 
his  short  and  remarkable  reign. 
(242) 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  343 

Charles  burned  with  desire  to  gain  fame  in  war,  taking 
for  pretext  that  the  king  of  Poland,  by  his  repeated  claims 
to  the  Swedish  throne,  made  peace  treacherous  and  impos- 
sible. But  such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  that  some- 
thing must  be  done  to  quiet  the  malcontent  people,  restore 
peace  between  the  quarrelling  classes,  and  reimburse  the 
empty  state  treasury.  At  a  Riksdag  in  Stockholm,  in  1655, 
a  restitution  was  proposed  by  the  king  and  agreed  to,  ac- 
cording to  which  all  estates  which  in  earlier  times  had  been 
rendering  dues  to  the  direct  support  of  the  court,  army, 
fleet,  or  administration,  should  be  confiscated  to  the  crown; 
also  one-fourth  of  the  estates  given  away  since  the  death 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  all  estates  fraudulently  ob- 
tained. A  committee  to  enforce  the  restitution  was  ap- 
pointed, to  be  presided  over  by  the  able  Herman  Fleming. 
The  restitution,  far  from  radical  in  itself,  was  not  com- 
pletely carried  through,  thanks  to  the  opposing  nobles. 
But  it  proved  effective  for  the  moment,  the  king  securing 
the  goodwill  of  the  people,  temporary  quiet  and  means  to 
carry  on  the  proposed  war,  to  commence  which  Charles 
Gustavus  received  the  somewhat  reluctant  consent  of  the 
faithful  people  whose  financial  state  was  a  most  despairing 
one.  Charles  X,  thought  in  new  conquests  to  find  means 
to  better  their  condition.  Shortly  after  his  coronation  he 
married  Hedvig  Eleonore  of  Holstein-Gottorp. 

John  II.  Casimir  of  Poland,  the  younger  son  of  Sigis- 
mund,  like  Vladislav,  styled  himself  king  of  Sweden  and 
had  claims  to  Livonia.  For  this  he  should  be  punished. 
It  was  not  the  original  intention  of  Charles  X.  to  make 
himself  king  of  Poland,  but  he  was  probably  the  first  who 
ever  devised  a  division  of  that  unhappy  country.  The  suc- 
cess of  Charles  X.  was  without  a  parallel.     The  strong  for- 


>i4:4:  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

tresses  were  captured,  the  armies  surrendered  and  registered 
in  Swedish  service.  After  two  months  Charles  X.  entered 
the  old  capital  of  Cracow,  John  Casimir  fled  from  his  coun- 
try, and,  carried  away  by  the  frenzy  of  success,  Charles 
Gustavus  had  himself  crowned  king  of  Poland.  "West 
Prussia  was  captured,  and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  who 
held  East  Prussia  in  fief,  and  the  duke  of  Courland  were 
forced  to  become  the  vassals  of  Sweden,  in  1656. 

But  Charles  X.  had  roused  an  enemy  that  few  invaders, 
however  great,   have  been  able  to  successfully  encounter, 
the  spirit  of  patriotism.     The  Poles,  enticed  to  revolt  by 
the  Catholic  clergy,  found  a  leader  in  the  noble  Czamiecki, 
who    commenced    a    war    of    Hberation    on    the    Swedish 
usurper.     King  John   Casimir   returned,  and  armies  were 
gathered.      Charles   Gustavus   was   yet   to   do  wonders  of 
strategy,  which   aroused  the  amazement  and  fear   of  all 
Europe,  but    he  was  glad,  when   finding  a  good   excuse, 
to    extract    himself     from     the     affairs    of    Poland.       In 
1656   he   defeated   Czamiecki   at   Golumbo,   undertook  the 
adventurous   crossing  of  the  river  of   San,  and   captured, 
and  recaptured,  the  capital  of  "Warsaw.     The  **  three  days' 
battle  of  Warsaw''  (18th-20th  of  July,  1656)  is  one  of  the 
most  famous  in  modem  warfare,  by  which  the  reputation 
of  Charles  X. ,  as  one  of  the  greatest  warriors  of  his  time, 
was  firmly  established.     Charles  X.  had  joined  forces  with 
the  "great    elector"  of  Brandenburg,  who  up  to  the  last 
moment   was    unwilling    to   risk   a   battle   of    22,000   men 
against  an  enemy  twice  as  strong.     Charles  Gustavus  was 
unyielding  and  turned   it  into  a  great  victory.      But  his 
position  became  precarious,  Russia,  Germany,  Holland  and 
Denmark  being  hostile,  joined  by  Brandenburg,  the  ambi- 
tious "great    elector"  not  being  satisfied  with  the  Swedish 


HISTORY   OF    SWEDEN  245 

supremacy  in  East  Prussia.  To  save  himself  from  the 
dilemma  with  untarnished  glory,  Charles  X.  decided  to 
fight  Denmark,  which  country  had  declared  war  without 
suspecting  the  possibility  of  an  attack. 

Lennart  Torstensson,  his  master  of  strategy,  had  shown 
Charles  X.  how  Denmark  was  to  be  attacked.  With  an 
army  of  only  8,000,  but  consisting  of  the  choicest  and  most 
victorious  troops  in  all  Europe,  Charles  X.  hastened  in  rapid 
marches  through  Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg,  recaptured 
Bremen,  and  invaded  through  friendly  Holstein  all  of  Schles- 
wig  and  Jutland,  defeating  the  larger  but  inexperienced  Dan- 
ish army  and  capturing  the  strong  fortress  of  Fredericia. 

Yet  the  new  position  was  as  precarious  as  the  one  in 
Poland,  and  Charles  had  to  use  all  the  skill  of  his  diplomacy 
to  save  his  Httle  army  from  an  assault  by  inimical  Europe. 
France  and  England  seemed  unwilling  to  render  him  effec- 
tive help.  But  when  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  who  had 
taken  upon  himself  the  leadership  of  Sweden's  enemies, 
turned  to  the  emperor,  emphasizing  the  necessity  of  crush- 
ing the  Swedish  power  in  one  blow,  he  received  the  follow- 
ing surprising  answer:  "The  king  of  Hungary  has  no  rea- 
son to  be  the  enemy  of  the  king  of  Sweden."  Charles  had 
reached  a  secret  understanding  with  Austria.  By  this 
move  he  gained  time.  Through  what  seemed  almost  a 
miracle,  he  was  not  only  to  save  his  army  but  lead  it  on 
to  victory  after  a  strategic  deed,  in  originality  and  daring 
unique  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

The  year  of  1658  commenced  with  severe  frosts. 
Charles  X.  conceived  the  daring  plan  of  attacking  the 
Danish  isles  by  leading  his  army  over  the  frozen  sounds. 
He  concluded  to  cross  the  sound  of  Lille  Belt,  opposite  the 
islet  of  Brandsce.     His  quartermaster-general,  Eric   Dahl- 


?46  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

berg,  an  engineer  of  great  genius,  ascertained  that  the  ice 
was  safe.  One  frosty  winter  morning,  the  30th  of  January, 
the  Swedish  army,  reinforced  to  9,000  men,  marched  down 
on  the  ice,  safely  reaching  Brandsoe  at  sunrise.  A  Danish 
-army,  arranged  in  order  of  battle  in  the  island  of  Funen, 
was  defeated.  While  crossing  over  to  Funen,  the  ice 
cracked  under  two  squadrons  of  cavalry,  those  who  fol- 
lowed not  daring  to  proceed.  The  king  himself  hurried 
past  the  dangerous  place,  pointing  out  a  safe  course,  and 
the  troops  followed  him. 

The  most  dangerous  part  remained  to  cross,  the  much 
wider  sound  of  Store  Belt,  in  order  to  reach  Seeland. 
Charles  first  thought  of  taking  the  direct  route  of  two 
miles,  but  commissioned  Dahlberg  to  explore  the  condition 
of  the  ice  across  to  the  smaller  islands  to  the  south.  Dahl- 
berg did  so,  and  said  he  would  wager  his  head  for  its  per- 
fectly safe  condition.  In  enthusiasm,  Charles  clapped  his 
hands  exclaiming:  "Now,  brother  Frederic,  we  will  con- 
verse in  good  Swedish!"  In  the  night  between  the  5th  and 
6th  of  February,  the  Swedish  army  marched  from  Svend- 
borg  in  Funen  over  the  ice  to  Lahgeland.  "It  was  ter- 
rible," wrote  an  eye-witness,  "to  march  through  the  night 
over  this  frozen  sea,  where  the  horses'  hoofs  had  thawed 
down  the  snow  on  the  ice,  which  was  below  two  feet  of 
water,  and  where  we,  in  every  moment,  were  in  fear 
of  striking  the  open  sea."  At  dawn  the  army  landed  in 
Langeland.  During  the  rest  for  breakfast,  frozen  beer  was 
chopped  and  distributed  in  pieces  to  the  soldiers.  The 
march  continued  over  the  still  wider  sound  to  Laaland, 
Eric  Dahlberg  in  front,  directing  the  march.  Reaching 
Grimsted  in  Laaland  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and 
proceeding  to  Nakskov,  Charles  Gustavus  was  met,  at  mid- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  247 

night,  by  the  burgomaster  and  council  of  said  town,  who 
surrendered  its  keys.  The  9th  of  February,  the  army  stood 
in  Falster,  and  a  few  days  later  was  collected  at  the  capt- 
ured castle  of  Vordingborg  in  Seeland.  Peace  was  hastily 
offered  and  agreed  to  on  the  17th,  and  the  treaty  of  peace 
signed  the  28th  of  February,  1658,  at  Roeskilde.  The  con- 
ditions were  severe,  Denmark  ceding  the  provinces  of 
Scania,  Halland,  Bleking  and  Bohuslsen,  the  whole  dis- 
trict or  diocese  of  Drontheim  in  Norway,  and  the  island 
of  Bomholm,  and  agreeing  to  hold  the  Baltic  closed  to 
hostile  fleets  with  the  help  of  Sweden.  The  last  clause 
was  a  piece  of  a  Scandinavian  policy  devised  by  the  Swed- 
ish king. 

Charles  X.  now  prepared  to  meet  Brandenburg  and 
Austria,  once  more  siding  against  Sweden.  It  was  neces- 
sary to  keep  Holland  out  from  the  Baltic,  and  when  Charles 
X.  found  Denmark  unwilling  to  keep  the  conditions  of  the 
recent  treaty  on  that  point,  the  war-lord  became  wrathful, 
dooming  obnoxious  Denmark  to  lose  her  very  existence. 
But  the  spirit  of  patriotism,  which  so  often  had  saved  Swe- 
den in  instances  of  extreme  danger,  now  sided  with  Den- 
mark, as  it  had  already  sided  with  Poland.  King  Frederic 
declared  he  would  die  like  a  bird  in  its  own  nest,  and  roused 
the  patriotism  of  the  population  of  Copenhagen,  which, 
badly  defended,  was  hurriedly  fortified  at  the  news  of  an 
intended  attack.  Contrary  to  the  advice  of  Eric  Dahlberg, 
Charles  X.  made  no  instantaneous  attack,  but  commenced 
a  siege,  although  he  did  not  bring  with  him  the  necessary 
means.  The  castle  of  Kronborg  by  Elsinore  was  captured 
and  its  cannon  used  against  Copenhagen.  The  greatest 
enthusiasm  prevailed  in  the  Danish  capital ;  the  king  slept 
in  a  tent  by  the  fortifications,  and  especially  the  students 


»48  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

and  Norwegian  sailors  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
valor  and  patriotism.  Charles  X.  found  it  impossible  to 
take  Copenhagen  and  retired  to  some  distance  from  the 
capital.  What  caused  Charles  to  retire  was  the  arrival 
of  a  Dutch  fleet.  It  had  been  met  by  the  Swedish  fleet, 
under  command  of  Charies  Gustavus  "Wrangel,  the  hero 
of  Fredericia  and  Kronborg.  After  six  hours  of  hard  fight- 
ing the  Dutch  forced  the  entrance  to  the  Sound.  Before 
leaving,  the  Swedish  king  resolved  to  make  a  desperate 
effort  to  capture  Copenhagen,  defended  by  13,000  troops 
and  by  a  patriotic  population,  with  his  8,000  Swedes.  The 
attack  was  made  in  the  night  of  February  11,  1659,  but  the 
city,  forewarned  by  traitors,  tendered  the  Swedes  a  warm 
reception,  consisting  of  artillery  tire,  stones,  and  scalding 
hot  water.  The  Swedes  lost  600  men  and  suffered  their 
first  and  only  defeat  under  the  command  of  Charles  X, 

The  situation  was  grave.  The  Swedish  army  in  Jut- 
land was  forced  to  retire;  the  troops  of  5,000  men  in  Funen 
were  defeated  and  made  prisoners;  a  revolt  took  place  in 
Bornholm,  and  the  Danes  recaptured  the  district  of  Dront- 
heim.  The  powers  united  in  their  efforts  to  force  Sweden 
and  Denmark  to  a  treaty  of  peace  on  the  basis  of  the  Roes- 
kilde  stipulations.  Charles  still  held  his  head  high,  declar- 
ing that  he  would  crush  the  fleets  of  the  allies  if  they  tried 
to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the  North,  striking  a  sharply 
discordant  note  in  the  concert  of  the  powers.  To  Denmark 
he  was  willing  to  cede  the  district  of  Drontheim,  but  pre- 
pared to  occupy  that  of  Akkershus  instead,  when  he  was 
taken  iU  at  the  convening  Riksdag  at  Gothenburg,  dying 
February  11,  1660,  in  the  palace  erected  by  his  friend  Len- 
nart  Torstensson. 

Charles  X.  Gustavus  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  249 

men  of  his  day,  whose  wonderful  deeds  of  bravery  and 
genius  caused  amazement  through  their  brilUancy,  and 
anxiety  through  their  recklessness.  At  the  first  glance  his 
appearance  gave  no  idea  of  the  real  man.  He  was  short, 
and  of  an  unusually  square  and  clumsy  build,  with  a  head 
of  coarse  proportions.  But  there  was  the  fire  of  genius  in 
his  sharp  blue  eyes;  under  the  black  hair,  and  below  the 
thin  black  mustache,  there  was  a  mouth  of  firm  and  reso- 
lute lines.  In  the  versatility  of  his  endowment,  he  stands 
as  one  of  the  first  among  Swedish  kings,  the  rich  gifts  of 
the  Vasas  and  the  Wittelsbachs  being  united  in  him.  As 
a  warrior  he  was  great,  yet  more  of  a  tactician  than  a 
strategist.  As  a  statesman  his  views  were  almost  as  clair- 
voyant as  those  of  his  grandfather,  Charles  IX.,  but  he 
gave  way  to  the  impressions  and  impulses  of  the  moment. 
He  failed  to  make  the  Baltic  a  Swedish  inland  lake,  but 
gained  for  his  country  the  inestimable  gift  of  a  natural 
frontier  to  the  east  and  south,  by  the  acquisition  of  Bohus- 
IfiBn,  Halland,  Scania  and  Bleking,  provinces  more  valu- 
able to  Sweden  than  a  whole  empire  south  of  the  Baltic. 
Charles  XL  was  a  child  of  four  years  at  the  death  of 
his  father;  his  country  at  war  with  a  world,  and  in  a 
sorely  afflicted  condition.  In  the  wiU  of  Charles  X.,  the 
queen-dowager,  Hedvig  Eleonore,  was  named  to  preside 
over  the  government,  with  two  votes,  and  the  brother  of 
Charles  X.,  the  duke  Adolphus  John,  was  to  take  a  seat 
with  her  as  Riksmarsk.  This  arrangement  displeased  the 
nobility,  understanding  that  it  was  directed  against  their 
influence,  and  they  had  the  duke  excluded  from  the  gov- 
ernment. The  lower  Estates  of  the  Riksdag  sided  with 
the  duke,  but  soon  gave  up  his  cause  as  they  found  that 
he  was  utterly  vain,  quick-tempered,  and  without  stability 


»60  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

or  genius.  Lars  Kagg,  a  good  warrior,  was  appointed 
Riksmarsk  in  his  place.  Herman  Fleming,  the  able  state 
treasurer,  was  removed  as  disagreeable  to  the  nobility,  his 
ill-health  being  taken  as  an  excuse,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Gustavus  Bonde.  Peter  Brahe  remained  Riksdrotset,  Mag- 
nus Gabriel  de  la  Gardie  state  chancellor,  and  Charles  Gus- 
tavus Wrangel  state  admiral,  Kagg  died  in  1661  and  was 
succeeded  by  Wrangel,  Gustavus  Otto  Stenbock  becoming 
state  admiral. 

The  first  duty  of  the  new  government  was  to  make  peace 
for  the  bleeding  country.  This  was  effected  in  1660  through 
the  treaties  of  Oliva  and  Copenhagen,  and  in  a  most  sat- 
isfactory manner,  speaking  high  for  the  diplomatic  abil- 
ity of  the  governing  ones,  but  also  of  the  ignorance  of 
the  powers  of  the  utter  helplessness  of  Sweden,  in  great 
contrast  to  her  outward  political  grandeur.  Poland  ceded 
Livonia  to  Sweden,  and  Denmark  all  the  territory  gained 
by  Charles  X.,  except  the  district  of  Drontheim  and  the 
island  of  Bomholm,  while  Russia  was  satisfied  with  the 
boundaries  set  by  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

The  government,  with  care  and  consideration,  made 
the  necessary  arrangements  to  have  the  new  provinces 
intimately  connected  with  the  country.  Representatives 
were  sent  to  the  Riksdag  of  1664,  and  the  University  of 
Lund,  in  Scania,  was  founded  in  1668.  If  to  this  is  added 
that  a  good  deal  was  done  to  encourage  art  and  science, 
principally  through  Count  Magnus  de  la  Gardie,  who  was 
the  Maecenas  of  Sweden,  the  meritorious  deeds  of  the  gov- 
ernment during  Charles  XL's  minority  are  enumerated. 
The  less  that  is  said  of  it  in  addition,  and  of  its  leading 
men,  the  better  for  these.  They  were  men  of  some  patriot- 
ism, but,  through  their  exceedingly  aristocratic  views  and 


HISTORY    OP   SWEDEN  351 

lack  of  stability,  unable  to  further  the  interests  of  their 
country,  so  badly  in  need  of  reform.  There  was  not  one 
of  them  who  possessed  the  abilities  of  a  statesman.  They 
lived  like  princes  in  their  counties,  each  holding  court  and 
possessing  various  considerable  castles,  all  the  members 
of  the  higher  aristocracy  upholding  the  same  standard  of 
luxury  and  power,  appointing  clergymen  and  judges,  found- 
ing towns,  and  discussing  the  necessity  of  having  mints 
and  coins  of  their  own.  Magnus  de  la  Gardie,  count  of 
LeckcB,  and  married  to  a  sister  of  Charles  X.,  was  the 
greatest  of  these  lords.  Close  to  him  came  Peter  Brahe, 
count  of  Visingsborg,  and  Charles  Gustavus  Wrangel, 
count  of  Skokloster.  The  barons  approached  the  counts 
in  their  display  of  wealth.  The  lower  nobility,  whose 
members  often  served  at  the  courts  of  the  great  lords,  were 
not  satisfied  with  this  state  of  affairs.  But  in  the  contempt 
and  oppression  in  which  they  held  the  lower  classes,  they 
agreed  with  the  higher  nobility,  who  made  no  secret  of 
their  intention  to  reduce  the  peasants  to  slaves.  The  peas- 
antry, suffering  and  neglected,  became  the  prey  of  a  super- 
stition which  was  shared  by  the  more  educated  members 
of  society,  accusations  and  legal  executions  of  witches  be- 
coming numerous. 

The  government  was  not  agreed  between  themselves 
upon  many  questions  and  turned  to  the  state  council  for 
support.  The  old  privileged  class  of  councillors  Sorced  their 
influeno  upon  the  government,  and  the  position  between 
the  two  became  quite  intimate,  at  the  same  time  diflScult 
to  define.  The  state  council  was  as  divided  in  its  opinions 
as  the  government,  which  fact  had  a  disastrous  influence 
upon  state  politics  and  administration.  Great  negligence 
was  shown  in  the  various  departments,  the  records  of  re- 


JB52  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

oeipts  and  expenditures  being  imperfect,  and  a  constant  lack 
of  funds  existing.  Forgery  and  thefts  were  committed  by 
high  and  low  officials.  Administrative  orders  were  not 
obeyed.     The  army  and  the  navy  suffered  utter  neglect. 

During  such  a  state  of  affairs  the  abominable  practice 
of  receiving  ** subsidies'*  came  into  use.  The  government 
received,  now  from  one  foreign  power,  now  from  another, 
a  large  sum  of  money  to  back  its  respective  interests  with 
the  military  forces  or  the  diplomatic  influence  of  Sweden. 
This  practice,  ignoble  in  itself,  injured  the  dignity  of  the 
state  and  had  a  demorahzing  influence.  Thanks  to  it, 
Sweden  sided  sometimes  against,  but  mostly  with,  France, 
her  old  ally,  who,  in  Count  de  la  Gardie,  had  an  enthu- 
siastic friend.  In  1662,  Sweden  schemed  with  France  for 
the  election  of  a  French  prince  as  king  of  Poland;  in  1667, 
she  formed,  with  England  and  Holland,  a  triple  alliance 
against  France.  Louis  XIV.  soon  won  back  the  friendship 
of  the  government  of  Sweden,  thus  having  this  country  as 
his  only  ally  when  reaching  the  climax  of  his  success.  At 
last  the  Swedish  promises  to  send  an  army  against  the 
elector  of  Brandenburg  were  fulfilled.  It  was  under  the 
command  of  the  old  and  invalid  Count  Wrangel,  and  suf- 
fered defeats  at  Ratenau  and  Fehrbellin,  in  1675.  These 
were  of  little  importance,  or  extension,  in  themselves,  but 
they  injured  the  prestige  of  Sweden,  so  long  supremely 
victorious  on  Grerman  soil,  and  caused  her  enemies  to  com- 
bine their  efforts  in  order  to  regain  their  lost  possessions. 

Charles  XI.  was  declared  of  age  at  seventeen,  in  1672, 
when  he  himself  took  charge  of  the  government,  yet  fop 
a  few  years  standing  under  the  influence  of  Count  de  la 
Gardie.  King  Charles  was,  as  a  child,  physically  weak, 
and  the  astrologers  had  prophesied  that  he  would  die  an 


arSTORY    OF  SWEDEN  263 

infant.  For  this  reason  the  queen-dowager,  a  very  ordi- 
nary woman,  gave  all  her  attention  to  have  her  son  develop 
a  strong  and  sound  constitution.  The  child  was  given  its 
own  way  in  everything,  casting  aside  books  and  rules  for 
his  individual  pleasures.  King  Charles  grew  up  an  igno- 
rant self-willed  and  headstrong  youth,  who  delighted  in 
hunting  and  reckless  riding  on  horseback.  His  compan- 
ions, manners  and  language  were  not  of  the  choicest  order, 
and  he  remained  all  his  life  shy  and  awkward  in  demeanor. 
From  his  thirteenth  year  he  was  made  acquainted  with  the 
routine  of  state  affairs,  but  he  lacked  the  qualifications  to 
grasp  them  in  detail.  He  surrounded  himself  with  mem- 
bers of  the  lower  nobility,  but  was  well  at  ease  only  among 
ministers,  burghers  and  peasants.  Charles  XI.  was  all  his 
life  of  an  imrestrained  temper  and  an  indomitable  will,  com- 
ing to  the  throne  the  most  ignorant  king  Sweden  had  had 
for  centuries.  But  he  was  pious,  sincere  and  just,  and  his 
morals  pure  and  severe.  Through  the  hardest  of  lessons, 
Charles  XI.  was  to  develop  his  great  uncultivated  gifts, 
to  become  the  liberator  of  his  people  and  one  of  its  most 
remarkable  rulers, 

Sweden  had  to  encounter  many  enemies  after  the  battle 
of  Fehrbellin,  and  a  chain  of  disasters  followed,  nearly 
orushing  the  young  king  imder  their  weight.  Holland, 
Austria,  Brandenburg  and  Denmark  attacked  the  Swedish 
possessions,  which  were  all  captured,  one  after  the  other. 
Charles  was  not  able  to  send  reinforcements,  the  navy 
being  in  a  miserable  condition,  and  when  rejuvenated, 
through  strenuous  effort,  defeated  by  the  excellent  admirals 
Juel,  of  the  Danish,  and  Tromp,  of  the  Dutch,  navy.  The 
treasury  was  empty,  the  administration  in  disorder,  and 
mistrust  and  strife  reigned  supreme.    But  the  yomig  king 


264  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

showed  that  he  wanted  to  be  obeyed,  and  managed,  by 
hard  work,  to  establish  order,  the  Riksdag  sacrificing  means 
to  organize  the  defence. 

The  Danes  were  successful  in  their  first  expeditions  on 
land  also,  their  army  having  undergone  a  reorganization. 
King  Christian  V.  marched  into  Scania,  while  his  general, 
Gyldenloeve,  invaded  Bohuslsen  and  West  Gothland.  The 
hostile  fleets  captured  the  islands  of  CEland  and  Gothland. 
Charles  XI.,  in  a  sinister  state  of  mind  verging  on  despair, 
at  last  had  his  army  collected,  and  entered  Halland,  where 
Danish  troops  were  encountered  and  defeated  at  Halmstad. 
This  gave  courage  to  the  Swedes,  who  soon  thought  them- 
selves invincible,  when  commanded  by  the  young  king 
himself.  Charles  received  reinforcements  through  peasant 
troops,  and  was  desirous  to  meet  Christian  in  open  battle. 
But  the  Danish  army  in  Scania  retreated  until  forced  to 
meet  the  enemy  near  Lund.  Here  a  bloody  and  decisive 
battle  was  fought,  more  than  8,000  men  being  killed,  and 
resulting  in  a  victory  for  the  Swedes,  who  took  2,000  pris- 
oners, fifty-one  cannon,  and  the  whole  hostile  camp,  Decem- 
ber 3,  1676. 

In  the  following  year  Sweden  suffered  two  defeats  at 

.  sea,  through  the  hands  of  Juel,  but  won  another  victory 

on  land,  at  Landskrona,  when  the  Danes  lost  3,000  men. 

"While  Charles  XI.  fought  with  the  courage  of  despair, 
Louis  XI Y.  was  supremely  victorious  over  his  enemies,  soon 
appearing  as  the  dictator  of  Europe,  when  peace  was  made 
at  Nimwegen,  in  1679.  Finding  Charles  XI.  resolved  not 
to  cede  any  of  his  territory.  King  Louis  took  a  similar 
standpoint  in  his  behalf,  but  contemptuously  neglected  to 
let  the  Swedish  ambassadors  take  any  active  part  in  the 
deliberations.     Louis  XIV.  made  peace  with  the  emperor. 


HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN  355 

Brandenbni^  and  Denmark  on  behalf  of  Sweden,  which 
country  only  ceded  a  small  part  of  East  Pomerania  to  Bran- 
denburg.  Charles  XL  deeply  felt  the  insolence  of  the  be- 
nevol^it  dictator,  and  forced  Christian  Y.  to  sign  a  treaty 
<^  peace  at  Limd,  in  1680,  as  if  Louis  XIV.  had  no  part  in 
h.  An  agreement  was  made  that  Charles  XL  should 
marry  the  sister  of  Christian  V.,  the  beautiful  Ulrica 
Eleonore.  Through  her  gentleness,  piety  and  great  benev- 
olence, she  soon  acquired  fame  as  one  of  the  noblest  queens 
of  Sweden.  Ulrica  Eleonore  led  a  quiet  life,  seldom  being 
seen  at  court,  where  the  vain  and  despotic  queen-dowager 
held  the  first  place.  She  was  never  able  to  win  the  affec- 
tion of  her  consort  until  during  her  last  illness.  King 
Charles  then,  for  the  first  time,  imderstood  what  a  treasure 
he  had  held  unappreciated  at  his  side,  and  watched  ov» 
her  with  infinite  care,  bringing  peace  and  sunshine  into  her 
last  days.  After  her  death,  in  1693,  the  king  became  a 
prey  to  deep  sorrow  and  remorse,  which  threw  added  gloom 
over  his  dark  countenance.  The  queen  had  been  active  in 
upholding  a  good  relation  between  the  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries, often  bitterly  opposed  by  the  queen-dowager,  in  the 
interests  of  Holstein. 

When  peace  was  made,  Charles  XL  immediately  took 
action  in  the  matter  of  reform.  He  saw  his  country  at  the 
verge  of  utter  ruin  and  the  crown  unable  to  help  it.  The  peas- 
ants were  losing  their  rights,  one  by  one,  and  five-sixths  of  the 
crown  lands  were  in  the  possession  of  the  nobles.  Brought 
up  in  ignorance  and  isolation,  finding  rottenness  and  in- 
capability everywhere,  it  was  no  wonder  that  the  king 
became  strongly  imbued  by  the  spirit  of  absolutism,  which 
pervaded  all  Europe.  He  followed  the  example  of  the  mon- 
archs  of  France  and  Denmark,  learning  from  them  how,  by 


856  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

secret  agitation  and  pressure,  to  make  the  lower  classes 
fervently  appeal  to  him  to  take  the  absolute  power  in  his 
hand.  His  principal  adviser  was  John  Oyllenstierna,  a 
man  of  old,  celebrated  stock,  but  belonging  to  the  lower 
nobility.  Gyllenstierna  was  one  of  the  greatest  and  most 
patriotic  statesmen  of  his  day.  He  first  attracted  attention 
as  a  champion  of  the  lower  nobility  against  the  great  lords 
for  the  restitution  of  crown  lands.  Raised  to  dignities  and 
a  high  station,  he  never  changed  his  position  to  the  aristo- 
crats in  power,  who  thought  they  could  win  him  over  by 
favors.  Seeing  the  absolute  impossibiUty  of  reform,  with 
the  help  of  the  nobles,  Gyllenstierna  turned  to  the  king, 
whose  whole  confidence  he  won,  inspiring  him  with  plans 
of  a  Scandinavian  peace  policy,  and  a  reform  through  the 
destruction  of  the  aristocracy.  Gyllenstierna  died  after 
having  brought  to  the  king  his  bride,  a  union  which  was 
the  work  of  this  able  statesman. 

The  Riksdag  was  convoked  to  meet  October  5,  1680. 
Everything  commenced  quietly.  No  royal  proposition  was 
made;  but  a  strong  agitation  had  been  set  in  motion 
among  the  four  Estates,  the  three  lower  ones  sending  in  a 
petition  to  make  the  royal  power  absolute,  to  have  a  restitu- 
tion of  crown  lands  made,  and  the  government,  during  the 
king's  minority,  brought  to  answer  for  their  acts.  Similar 
requests  were  sent  up  from  the  nobility,  after  many  stormy 
scenes  at  the  Riddarhus.  Thus,  toward  the  end  of  the 
Riksdag,  with  the  petitions  in,  came  the  royal  propositions 
which,  when  accepted,  in  one  blow  crushed  the  aristocracy, 
as  a  ruling  class,  and  the  antiquated  state  council,  as  an 
institution,  and  established  the  absolute  power  of  the  king. 

According  to  the  resolutions  of  this  memorable  Riksdag, 
which  marks  a  new  era  in  Swedish  history,  a  **  grand  com- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEir  267 

mission'*  was  selected  which  fulfilled  its  duties  with  the 
greatest  severity.  The  members  of  the  former  government 
and  state  council  were  made  responsible  for  their  adminisj- 
tration,  and  themselves,  or  their  heirs,  sentenced  to  pay 
smaller  or  larger  sums.  Two-thirds  of  the  whole  amount 
was  afterward  given  up,  but  the  fines  were  nevertheless 
great.  Count  Nils  Brahe,  the  heir  of  both  Peter  Brahe  and 
Charles  Gustavus  Wrangel,  and  the  wealthiest  man  in 
Sweden,  had  to  pay  something  like  $600,000  in  fines,  an 
immense  sum  in  those  days,  and  was  reduced  almost  to  pov« 
erty.  The  restitution  department,  assisted  by  two  commis- 
sions, did  equally  thorough  work  under  the  pressure  of  the 
king.  Ten  counties  and  seventy  baronies,  with  a  great 
number  of  other  crown  lands  of  various  classes,  were  con* 
fiscated.  It  cost  the  higher  nobility  dearly;  Count  Magnus 
de  la  Gardie,  the  all-powerful  favorite  of  three  monarchs, 
lost  his  immense  wealth  and  died  on  a  little  estate  left  him, 
with  one  single  servant  out  of  his  former  princely  retinue. 
The  work  of  restitution  was  carried  on  without  cruelty  or 
injustice. 

A  second  restitution  was  to  follow.  The  propositions 
were  arranged  at  the  Riksdag  of  1683,  in  the  same  way 
as  in  1680.  This  time  the  lower  nobility  was  to  suffer.  All 
crown  lands  rendering  less  than  $600  a  year  of  income  had 
been  spared;  now  these  were  confiscated,  without  exception. 
In  1686  followed  another  blow.  The  dividends  on  the  state 
loans  were  reduced,  and  a  stipulation  made  that  holders 
of  bonds  must  refund  what  they,  up  to  that  date,  had  re- 
ceived above  the  new  schedule.  The  same  principle  was 
applied  in  the  redemption  of  mortgaged  state  lands.  These 
new  harsh  measures  were  enforced  with  a  great  deal  of  se- 
verity,  with  incidental  cases  of  injustice.    The  king  showed 


368  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

clemency  only  to  certain  parties  in  stringent  need.  The 
discontent  of  the  nobles  caused  many  of  ihem  to  leave  the 
country,  as,  for  instance.  Count  Otto  William  von  Kcenigs- 
marck,  son  of  the  conqueror  of  Prague,  and  himself  the  val- 
iant defender  of  Pomerania  against  the  hostile  allies.  Their 
example  was  followed  by  many  nobles  of  Livonia,  the 
measures  of  the  restitution  entirely  crushing  the  nobility 
of  that  province,  while  its  peasants,  who  were  slaves, 
gained  their  liberty,  and  had  every  reason  to  bless  the 
Swedish  government. 

The  power  of  absolutism  grew  steadily  stronger.  The 
king  decided  all  matters  alone,  and  prepared  in  advance  the 
measures  he  proposed  to  the  Riksdag,  of  whose  sanction 
he  was  as  independent  as  of  that  of  the  old  state  council. 
All  oflBcers  and  institutions  were  also  changed  in  name  from 
•'state"  to  "royal"  servants  and  instruments.  The  uni- 
versity professors  were  instructed  to  impress  the  students 
with  the  necessity  and  divine  rights  of  an  absolute  ruler. 
The  nobles  were  alone  in  their  discontent.  The  other 
classes,  especially  the  peasants,  looked  with  satisfaction 
and  approval  on  the  work  which  crushed  the  enemies  of 
their  Hberty  and  prosperity,  and  submitted  willingly  to  the 
absolute  power  because  it  was  in  the  hands  of  a  patriotic 
king. 

Charles  XI.  used  the  revenues  of  the  restitutions  prin- 
cipally for  the  reorganization  of  army  and  navy.  For  the 
former  he  reintroduced  a  system  which  Gustavus  Adolphus 
had  appHed,  the  so-called  Indelningsverk  (work  of  divis- 
ion), which,  elaborated  upon  and  firmly  established  by 
Charles  XI.,  became  the  foundation  of  the  Swedish  army 
^stem.  The  whole  country  was  divided  into  small  sections, 
which  were  each  to  support  an  infantry  soldier,  or  a  sea- 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  25ft 

man,  and  larger  ones  to  support  a  cavalry  soldier.     This 
soldier  received  a  hamlet  with  earth  to  till  within  his  sec- 
tion, paying  for  it  by  work  to  the  farmers  or  squires,  while 
these  paid  for  his  equipment.     In  times  of  war  the  state 
paid  his  expenses.      This  changed  the  troublesome  army 
element  into  useful  members  of  state  in  times  of  peace. 
The  ofl&cers  were  given  small  estates  by  the  crown  for  their 
support.     The  army  consisted,  at  the  death  of  Charles  XI., 
of  65,000  men,   well  equipped.      On  the  coast  of  Bleldng 
extensive  navy  yards  were  built  by  Count  Hans  Wacht- 
meister  and  Eric  Dahlberg,  in  a  new  town  called  Carla- 
crona.     At  great  expense,  the  best  fleet  ever  under  Swedish 
command  was  constructed  by  Wachtmeister,  who  enjoyed  the 
full  confidence  of  the  king.     His  excellent  means  wherewith 
to  conduct  a  successful  war,  Charles  XI.  used  to  maintain 
a  dignified  peace,  of  which  his  coimtry  was  badly  in  need. 
Bengt  Oxenstierna  held  the  reins  of  diplomacy,  which  had 
no  attraction  for  Charles  XI.     The  old  alliance  with  France 
was    broken    off    and    close  connections  with  William   of 
Orange  established  for  the  maintenance  of  peace.     Sweden 
regained  its  prestige,  rising  to  a  power  whose  support  was 
sought  by  all.     When   William  became  king  of  England, 
Sweden  was  a  member  of  the  alliance  against  Louis  XIV., 
but  contributed  to  the  great  European  war  only  a  few  thou- 
sand soldiers,  according  to  agreement,  preserving,  together 
with  Denmark,   an  armed  neutrality.      Charles  XI.   lived 
to  the  proud  moment  when  the  powers  selected  Sweden  as 
an   arbiter  in   the  deliberations    for   peace   in   Riswick,   a 
worthy  satisfaction  gained    over  the  earlier  insolence  of 
Louis  XIV. 

Charles  XI.  improved  the  administration  by  filling  the 
offices  of  the  excellent  institutions  with  excellent  men.    This 


360  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

he  obtained  by  enforcing  the  necessity  of  obeying  orders, 
supplying  officials  of  all  ranks,  from  the  lowest  upward, 
with  new  regulations  which  must  be  obeyed,  also  regulating 
their  salaries.  Sweden  never  had  a  greater  lover  of  law 
and  order  than  Charles  XI.,  and  he  used  his  absolute  power 
in  their  interests,  trying  to  remold  the  old  laws  to  suit  mod- 
em requirements,  and  having  a  new  church  law,  a  master- 
piece in  its  line,  introduced.  The  church  itself  and  its  men 
had  in  Charles  XI.  an  interested  friend.  New  catechism, 
hymn  book  and  ritual  were  prepared,  and  a  new  translation 
of  the  Bible  completed,  being  published  after  his  death. 
Commerce  and  mining  industries  were  encouraged,  while 
agriculture  improved  with  the  improvement  of  the  finan- 
cial conditions  of  the  peasants.  Charles  Xl!  was  not 
only  a  ** peace  king,*'  but  a  "peasant  king,"  who  was 
ardently  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the  education  and 
financial  circumstances  of  the  country  population.  He  was 
of  broadly  democratic  inclinations,  finding  his  delight  in 
moving  among  the  humble  and  lowly  as  one  of  them.  The 
peasants,  who  had  been  brushed  aside  by  the  great  and 
powerful,  were  now  brought  to  the  front  and  took  an 
active  and  important  part  in  the  affairs  of  state.  Charles 
ruled  over  them  with  a  stem  husbandry,  and  asked  great 
sacrifices  of  them  for  the  maintenance  of  an  armed  defence; 
but  no  king  has  accomplished  more  in  their  true  interest 
than  he,  or  remains  more  clearly  in  their  memory  and  tradi- 
tions. He  travelled  continually  through  the  country,  avoid- 
ing the  places  where  he  would  be  received  with  ceremony, 
stopping  in  the  houses  of  the  farmers,  and  enjoying  heart- 
ily what  comfort  these  offered.  In  his  appearance  he  was 
far  from  prepossessing.  His  features  were  not  devoid  of 
beauty,  but  gloomy;   his  figure  strong  and  vigorous,  but 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  261 

not  impressive.  Through  an  accident  while  hunting  he 
became  slightly  lame.  Although  dearth  and  hard  times 
set  in  during  the  last  years  of  his  reign,  causing  terrible 
losses  of  life  through  hunger  and  prostration,  he  could 
plainly  tell  the  beneficent  results  of  his  administration. 
Charles  XI.  took  the  reins  of  state  when  disastrous  war 
ravished  a  country  which  seemed  doomed  to  destruction. 
He  left  it  reformed,  reorganized,  rejuvenated  and  prosper- 
ous at  his  death,  in  1697. 

The  Period  of  Political  Grandeur  in  Swedish  history 
falls  within  the  epoch  of  the  history  of  art  which  has  been 
called  BaroccOy  an  unbalanced  offspring  of  the  Renaissance, 
and  a  style  characterized  by  great  complicity,  pretensions 
and  ambitions,  a  renaissance  in  wigs  of  formidable  propor- 
tions. After  the  great  victories  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
it  seems  as  if  the  interchange  of  influences  between  art, 
literature,  science,  politics  and  religion  was  increased.  The 
whole  era  becomes  a  Barocco  period  of  bombast  and  chau- 
vinism, the  climax  being  reached  in  the  form  of  the  absolute 
monarchy  of  the  age. 

In  Sweden,  as  elsewhere,  there  was  no  lack  of  men  of 
ability  and  brilliant  genius;  but,  influenced  by  the  spirit 
of  their  time,  the  works  of  most  of  them  were  bombastic 
and  chauvinistic,  like  the  artistic  and  political  aspirations 
of  the  era.  The  artists  were,  as  were  at  first  the  scholars, 
mostly  foreigners.  The  native  and  imported  scholars 
were  characterized  by  great  learning  and  versatility,  but 
abused  their  genius  by  Utopian  theories  and  vainglorious 
dreams,  and  violated  the  laws  of  history  and  sound 
research. 

Olof  Rudbeck  was  not  only  the  most  learned  and  bril« 
liantly  gifted  scholar  of  his  day,  but  his  genius  also  embod- 


262  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

5es  the  eccentricities  of  the  period  in  gigantic  outlines.  He 
was  born  at  Westeros,  in  1630,  his  father  being  the  learned 
bishop,  Johannes  Rudbeckius.  As  a  boy,  he  gave  evi- 
dence of  rare  artistic  and  mechanic  talents.  He  made 
drawings  of  exquisite  designs,  constructed  clock  mecha- 
nisms of  wood,  and  was  a  skilled  musician.  His  character 
was  proud  and  violent.  At  sixteen  he  was  through  with 
his  college  course  and  ready  to  enter  the  university.  The 
youth  could  not  stand  the  change  from  his  coarse  jacket 
and  fur  coat  into  a  coat  of  broadcloth  with  buttons  such 
as  the  students  wore,  and  was  for  his  overbearing  manner 
punished  by  his  severe  father  with  an  additional  year  of 
college  work.  At  the  University  of  Upsala  he  caused  from 
the  start  great  surprise  by  his  knowledge  in  all  subjects. 
He  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  natural  science,  which, 
in  that  day,  was  a  neglected  study,  and  soon  excelled  his 
professors. 

At  twenty,  Rudbeck  made  a  scientific  discovery  of  great 
importance,  which  caused  a  stir  in  the  whole  learned  world. 
By  his  discovery  and  theory  of  the  lymphatic  ducts,  the 
blood  circulation  of  the  human  body  received  a  satisfactory 
explanation.  Before  the  circle  of  scholars  which  surrounded 
Queen  Christine,  Rudbeck  was  allowed  to  demonstrate  his 
anatomical  discoveries,  in  1652.  Queen  Christine,  who 
earlier  had  been  an  admirer  of  his  beautiful  voice  and 
musical  abilities,  loaded  him  with  praise  and  gave  him  the 
means  for  a  journey  abroad.  Rudbeck  returned,  in  1660, 
to  Sweden,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Upsala.  He  planned  the  first  botanic  garden 
in  the  country,  donating  it  to  the  university.  He  had  illus- 
trations made  of  the  native  plants  and  commenced  a  learned 
work  on  botany.     The  first  hall  of  anatomy  was  erected 


HISTORY    OP   SWEDEN  263 

according  to  his  proposition.  As  rector  of  the  university, 
he  established  several  important  reforms,  in  spite  of  opposi- 
tion, but  supported  by  the  chancellor,  Magnus  Gabriel  de  la 
Gardie,  who  was  his  friend  and  protector.  To  the  stupen- 
dous mastery  of  all  sciences,  Rudbeck  added  a  skill  and 
cleverness  in  various  branches  of  practical  activity  which 
made  him  carry,  with  honor,  the  nickname  of  **  master  at 
all  trades. ' '  He  was  an  excellent  financier,  who  succeeded 
in  restoring  the  sound  economy  of  the  university.  He  built 
a  fish  pond,  from  which  the  tables  of  the  learned  professors 
were  regularly  supplied  with  fish.  A  book  store  and  a  book- 
printing  establishment  were  erected  by  him,  and  for  a  time 
run  at  his  expense.  He  repaired  windmills,  built  houses, 
provided  the  university  town  with  water  works  and  street 
pavement,  also  arranging  its  postal  service.  Rudbeck  was 
one  of  the  finest  composers  and  singers  of  his  day,  conduct- 
ing the  musical  exercises  at  the  university.  He  made  fire- 
works and  compasses  for  the  Swedish  navy,  built  fountains 
and  organs,  was  a  good  poet  and  painter  and  an  excellent 
etcher  and  drawer. 

Rudbeck  does  not  owe  his  great  renown  to  his  mastery 
of  any  of  these  trades,  arts  or  sciences,  nor  to  any  discov- 
ery, reform  or  invention  by  his  versatile  genius.  It  was  his 
monumental  work,  **Atland  or  Manheim,'*  generally  called 
**The  Atlantica,"  which  made  him  world-famous.  For 
centuries  one  had  believed  in  the  statement  made  by  Jor- 
danes,  and  based  upon  traditions  current  among  his  people, 
that  the  Goths  who  conquered  Rome  had  migrated  from  the 
North,  and  that  their  ancestors,  from  the  remotest  period, 
were  inhabitants  of  Sweden.  Johannes  Magnus  con- 
structed a  line  of  Swedish  kings,  beginning  with  Magog, 
the  son  of  Japhet,  on  the  basis  of  which  the  sons  of  Gus- 


264  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

tavns  Vasa,  Eric  XIV.,  and  Charles  IX.,  had  accepted 
their  high  ordinals.  In  the  time  of  Rudbeck  it  was  consid- 
ered a  supremely  praiseworthy  effort  to  glorify  the  father- 
land by  strengthening  its  claims  to  a  high  antiquity.  Rud- 
beck, the  remarkable  savant  and  able  poet,  got  his  head, 
turned  by  the  political  grandeur  of  his  country.  He  had 
in  his  youth  read  the  story  of  Atlantis,  found  in  Plato. 
Rudbeck  undertook  to  prove,  in  **The  Atlantica,**  that  the 
lost  island,  with  its  ancient  ideal  state  from  which  the  gods 
of  antiquity  were  supposed  to  hail,  was  identical  with  Swe- 
den. The  work,  in  four  large  volumes,  was  written  in  Swed- 
ish and  Latin  of  parallel  columns.  The  first  volume  was 
printed  in  1675,  Rudbeck  having  made  the  types  himself. 
In  Sweden  the  work  was  greeted  with  an  enthusiasm  which 
had  no  bounds.  The  second  volume  was  published  by 
funds  which  Charles  XI.  with  great  generosity  placed  at 
the  author's  disposal.  The  third  volume  was  dedicated 
to  the  youthful  Charles  XII.,  a  true  child  of  the  chauvin- 
istic epoch,  who  hailed  the  book  with  delight.  The  fourth 
volume  was  in  press  when  Upsala  was  destroyed  by  fire, 
in  1702.  The  aged  Rudbeck  led  the  battle  against  the 
ravaging  element,  by  supreme  exertions  saving  the  uni- 
versity halls,  at  the  expense  of  his  home,  his  press  and 
manuscripts,  and  the  rest  of  the  town.  Rudbeck  died  in 
the  autumn  of  the  same  year. 

The  elaborate  construction  which  Rudbeck  had  com- 
pleted by  means  of  ingenious  deductions  and  learned  guess- 
work succumbed  with  the  political  grandeur  of  Sweden. 
"The  Atlantica,"  which  once  had  its  place  beside  the  Bible 
on  the  tables  of  the  mighty  ones,  was  ridiculed  and  for- 
gotten. On  the  continent  of  Europe,  where  similar  books 
had  been  written  in   Germany  and   Holland,  making  for 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  266 

these  respective  countries  similar  claims,  "The  Atlantica'* 
was  at  &:st  received  with  surprise  and  admiration,  later 
with  doubt  and  criticism.  The  work,  in  spite  of  its  mis- 
takes, proved  a  foimdation  for  archseological  research,  which 
gradually  was  developed  into  a  science.  In  order  to  sup- 
port the  boldest  and  most  impossible  theories,  the  almost 
unparalleled  power  of  combination  of  an  eminent  genius 
has  brought  together  material  which  for  the  first  time  gave 
the  suggestion  of  relationship  between  the  Teutonic  and  the 
classical  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Rudbeck  was 
also  the  first  to  point  out  the  unmistakable  resemblance  of 
the  Old  Norse  and  classical  mythologies,  as  to  the  origin 
of  which  modern  scholars  have  reached  no  absolute  cer- 
tainty, but  radically  different  conclusions.  The  importance 
which  Rudbeck  placed  upon  popular  customs  and  traditions 
was  too  great,  but  it  has  favorably  influenced  later  students 
of  ethnography  and  folk  lore. 

If  Rudbeck  had  limited  himself  to  the  demonstration  that 
Sweden  has  been  not  the  cradle  of  all  races,  but  the  original 
home  of  the  Teutonic  branch  of  the  Aryan  race,  he  might 
have  been  able  to  offer  a  theory,  the  truth  of  which  mod- 
em science  lacks,  and  forever  may  lack,  the  resources  to 
disprove. 

Rudbeck  had  not  been  entirely  without  opponents  in 
Sweden.  The  most  noted  among  them  was  John  Pering- 
skiold,  who  criticised  the  opinion  expressed  by  Rudbeck  that 
the  Runes  were  the  oldest  alphabet  of  the  world.  Pering- 
skiold  was  a  fine  Icelandic  scholar,  and  the  first  editor  of 
Snorre  Sturleson's  "Heimskringla." 

A  typical  and  highly  valuable  illustrated  work  from  this 
period  is  the  "Svecia  Antiqua  et  Hodiema,"  by  Eric  Dahl- 
berg,  the  renowned  quartermaster  of  Charles  X.     The  text, 

xxlJJ 


266  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

written  by  Dahlberg  and  translated  into  Latin  by  several 
scholars,  was  never  published,  the  magnificent  engravings 
not  before  1716.  The  latter  give  an  impressive  portrayal 
of  architectural  Sweden  during  the  reigns  of  the  three 
Charleses,  but  are  not  quite  reliable,  as  some  of  the 
castles  and  palaces  in  this  work  are  provided  with  ad- 
ditions and  embellishments  which  were  never  more  than 
projected. 

There  is  no  family  who  has  wielded  a  greater  influence 
over  the  Swedish  church  than  that  of  Benzelius.  The 
founder  of  the  house,  Eric  Benzelius  the  Elder,  and  three 
of  his  sons  were  archbishops  of  Sweden,  and  two  of  his 
grandsons  bishops  of  the  state  church.  The  first  Arch- 
bishop Benzelius,  born  in  1632,  was  the  son  of  a  peasant, 
and  took  his  name  from  the  farm  of  Bentseby,  of  Lulea 
parish,  in  Norrland,  where  he  was  born;  he  and  the  three 
of  his  seven  sons  who  were  archbishops  refused  to  be 
ennobled,  the  other  members  of  the  family  adopting  the 
name  of  Benzelstierna.  The  earlier  generations  of  the 
family  produced  men  of  great  talent  and  power,  to  whom 
the  third  one,  although  consisting  of  able  men,  could  not 
be  compared.  The  influence  of  this  family  in  matters  of 
religion,  science  and  culture  was  strongly  felt  during  the 
period  of  more  than  one  century.  The  most  remarkable 
member  was  Eric  Benzelius  the  Younger,  one  of  the  most 
learned,  active  and  patriotic  men  ever  born  in  Sweden. 
Like  the  other  members  of  the  family,  he  perfected  his 
education  at  foreign  universities  and  made  the  personal 
acquaintance  of  Leibnitz,  Thomasius,  Malebranche,  and 
other  celebrated  scholars.  He  was  a  historian,  literary 
critic  and  philologist  of  merit,  writing  a  history  of  Sweden 
and  preparing  an  edition  of  Codex  Argenteus,  published 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  267 

in  London  after  his  death.  He  was  highly  appreciated  by 
Charles  XII.,  and  was  a  friend  of  Polhem  and  Swedenborg, 
being  married  to  a  sister  of  the  latter.  Eric  Benzelius  was 
appointed  archbishop,  but  died,  in  1742,  before  he  had 
entered  office. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
Period  of  Political   Grandeur — Charles  XII 

CHARLES  XII.,  the  most  famous  of  Swedish  kings, 
was  a  boy  of  fifteen  at  the  death  of  his  father.  He 
was  born  June  17,  1682,  at  the  castle  of  Stockholm. 
The  astrologers  declared  that  Sweden  was  to  receive  a  new 
war-lord,  and  that  time  they  were  not  mistaken.  Charles 
XII.  was  bom  in  the  same  year  as  the  absolute  monarchy 
of  Sweden,  which  power  he  was  to  abuse  in  such  a  great 
measure.  Shortly  after  his  birth,  one  of  the  speakers  of  the 
knightly  chapter  house.  Justice  Gyllencreutz,  said  while 
warning  against  the  consequences  of  an  absolute  power: 
**A  king  may  come  who  follows  his  own  will,  being  more 
fond  of  war  than  peace,  or  utterly  extravagant.  History 
proves  that  changes  of  the  constitution  generally  are  beset 
by  dangerous  consequences;  yea,  that  they  often  have 
brought  destruction  to  the  country  and  its  people."  These 
words  were  prophetic. 

The  early  education  of  Charles  was  supervised  by  his 
mother,  sweet  Ulrica  Eleonore,  who  taught  him  piety, 
modesty,  gentleness  and  justice  by  her  own  example.  He 
participated  with  earnestness  in  the  morning  and  evening 
prayers,  kneeling  before  the  only  Lord  he  ever  acknowl- 
edged as  his  superior.  His  mother  died  when  Charles  was 
seven  years  of  age,  but  the  devotion  in  which  he  held  her 
(268) 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  269 

he  fixed  upon  his  sisters,  Hedvig  Sophie  and  Ulrica  Eleo- 
nore,  but  especially  upon  the  former.  His  religious  feeling 
was  deep  and  sincere,  and  he  evinced  early  a  love  of  truth, 
justice  and  pure  morals  which,  hke  his  brotherly  devotion, 
followed  him  through  life.  The  most  remarkable  trait  in 
a  son  of  Charles  XI.  was  his  power  of  self-control;  but  he 
was  his  father's  superior  also  in  intellectual  gifts,  such 
as  a  ready  memory,  a  good  apprehension  and  a  sharp  dis- 
cernment. His  faults  were  early  developed,  and  met,  after 
the  death  of  his  parents,  no  restraint.  He  was  taciturn, 
unapproachable,  proud,  self-willed  and  headstrong.  He  had 
from  his  grandfather  inherited  an  ambition  for  the  vain 
glory  of  war,  which  was  led  astray  by  his  unrestrained  power 
of  imagination.  From  the  age  of  five  he  was  taught  by  the 
learned  professor,  Andreas  Norcopensis,  ennobled  under  the 
name  of  Nordenhielm,  to  whom  he  was  very  devoted  and 
under  whose  guidance  he  received  a  good  general  educa- 
tion. The  plain,  able  scholar  influenced  the  young  prince 
in  a  wholesome  manner.  When  his  teacher  asked  him  how 
an  honest  man  ought  to  be,  the  pupil,  then  seven  years  of 
age,  answered:  **He  should  be  gentle  but  of  great  courage; 
fierce  like  a  lion  to  his  enemies,  gentle  like  a  lamb  to  those 
at  home."  To  the  question  if  it  were  not  better  to  avoid 
dangers  in  order  to  save  one's  life,  the  little  Charles  an- 
swered: *'No,  it  would  be  a  shame  to  Hve  in  such  a 
manner." 

Charles  XI.  had  drawn  an  outline  of  the  course  which 
the  education  of  his  son  was  to  follow.  The  first  place 
was  given  to  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  Christian  doctrines 
and  the  severe  practice  of  religion.  The  prince  was  to 
learn  Swedish  and  German  early,  to  receive  instruction 
in  the  laws  and  constitution  of  his  country,  and  in  the 


270  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

science  of  war,  and  to  be  trained  in  the  arts  of  military 
drill,  fencing  and  riding  on  horseback.  He  soon  acquired 
the  faculty  of  speaking  Latin  fluently,  in  the  ordinary 
mechanical  way,  and  learned  some  French.  When  his 
first  governor,  Eric  Lindskiold,  tried  to  interest  him  in  the 
latter  language  by  pointing  out  its  usefulness  in  diplomatic 
intercourse  with  the  French  ambassador,  the  prince  an- 
swered: **If  I  meet  the  king  of  France  I  will  converse  with 
him  in  his  own  language.  When  a  French  ambassador 
comes  here,  it  is  more  appropriate  that  he  learns  Swedish 
on  my  account  than  I  French  on  his."  His  favorite  stud- 
ies were  strategy  and  mathematics,  which  he  made  under 
the  Swedish  general,  Charies  Magnus  Stuart.  He  often 
said  that  the  one  who  was  ignorant  of  mathematics  was 
only  a  half  human  being.  Charies  was  fond  of  riding  the 
horses  of  his  father,  and  followed  the  latter  on  his  adven- 
turous journeys  and  hunts.  When  only  twelve  years  of  age 
he  killed  his  first  bear.  He  early  developed  the  reckless 
courage  which  made  him  so  famous.  Charles  was  exceed- 
ingly fond  of  reading  the  Eddie  poems  and  the  old  hero 
Sagas  of  the  North.  He  said  he  wanted  to  resemble  the 
ancient  hero  kings,  and  wished  he  had,  like  many  of  them, 
a  brother  who  would  remain  at  home  to  rule  the  country 
in  peace,  while  he,  with  his  warriors,  made  a  tour  of  the 
world.  The  prescription,  made  by  his  father,  that  the 
prince  should  be  taught  to  make  a  moderate  use  of  his 
absolute  power,  was,  if  carried  out,  of  little  consequence. 
Charles  mourned  deeply  the  losses  of  his  mother  and  of  his 
first  teacher,  Nordenhielm,  which  followed  close  upon  each 
other,  seeking,  after  that,  more  the  company  of  his  father. 
Charles  XI.  had  a  long  private  conversation  with  his  son 
shortly  before  his  death,   pointing  out  the  men  in  whom 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  271 

he  could  confide.  Among  these  Charles  Piper  occupied 
a  conspicuous  place.  He  remained  ever  the  adviser  of 
Charles  XII.,  but  never  had  his  full  confidence.  The  enig- 
matic king  confided  in  nobody,  and  passed  through  life 
without  opening  his  heart  to  any  one. 

Charles  XI.  had  appointed  a  goveroment  to  reign  dur- 
ing the  minority  of  his  son,  to  be  presided  over  by  Queen- 
dowager  Hedvig  Eleonore.  But  the  Estates  of  the  Riks- 
dag, at  the  request  of  the  nobility,  declared  Charles  XII. 
of  age  when  only  fifteen.  The  young  king  placed  the  crown 
upon  his  head  with  his  own  hands  at  the  coronation,  and 
took  charge  of  the  government  in  November,  1697.  Bengt 
Oxenstierna  remained  at  the  head  of  foreign  affairs  as  the 
president  of  the  chancery,  while  Charles  took  personal 
interest  in  continuing  the  life  work  of  his  father,  the 
restitution  of  crown  lands,  which  still  went  on.  Charles 
Piper,  who  had  been  quite  active  in  obtaining  an  early 
majority  for  the  king,  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  count, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  influential  members  of  the  state 
council.  Charles  was  not  influenced  by  anybody  in  spite 
of  his  youth.  He  listened  to  what  the  councillors  had  to 
say,  then  announced  his  resolutions  with  terse  independ- 
ence. He  refused  firmly  the  appeals  of  the  nobility  to  re- 
duce the  demands  of  the  work  of  restitution.  He  abolished 
the  practice  of  torture,  in  spite  of  the  unanimous  vote  of  the 
state  council  to  the  contrary.  When  the  aged  Bengt  Oxen- 
stierna was  anxious  to  have  annulled  a  treaty  with  France,  al- 
ready signed,  the  young  king  answered  tersely:  '*You  have 
heard  my  opinion;  I  am  the  one  who  signed  the  treaty." 
Charles  took,  in  general,  little  interest  in  foreign  affairs, 
except  those  concerning  Holstein,  to  the  duke  of  which 
country  his  elder  sister  was  married. 


272  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

The  exuberant  spirits  of  the  youthful  Charles  found  an 
outlet  in  daring  exploits  and  plays  of  war.  The  somewhat 
older  man,  Count  Arvid  Bemhard  Horn,  the  conmiander  of 
the  royal  body-guard,  took  an  active  part  in  these  as  the 
most  intimate  comrade  of  the  king.  They  went  bear-hunt- 
ing together,  with  wooden  forks  as  their  only  weapon,  fought 
naval  battles  with  hand-spurts,  made  breakneck  rides  on 
horseback,  etc.  When  the  king  was  near  being  drowned 
in  one  of  these  "naval  battles,"  the  only  ones  that  Charles 
XII.  ever  fought,  he  was  saved  by  Arvid  Horn,  who  pulled 
him  up  by  the  hair.  When  Horn  in  some  other  game  was 
badly  hurt  and  taken  ill,  the  king  kept  the  night  watch  at 
his  bedside.  Upon  the  visits  of  Duke  Frederic  of  Holstein, 
the  two  young  princes  indulged  in  escapades  of  the  wildest 
kind,  if  one  were  to  believe  the  reports  made  by  the  foreign 
ambassadors  at  Stockholm  to  their  respective  governments, 
and  chiefly  founded  upon  hearsay.  His  application  to  state 
affairs  was  almost  constant  and  very  arduous,  for  which 
reason  these  reports  of  the  escapades  and  adventures  of  the 
youthful  king  are  probably  wild  exaggerations,  or  mere 
fables. 

The  reports  of  a  young  inexperienced  king  who  gave 
up  his  time  to  sport  and  pastimes  spread  abroad,  and  the 
enemies  of  Sweden  were  led  to  believe  that  an  opportune 
moment  was  come  for  an  attack  on  the  empire  which  held 
the  balance  of  power  in  Northern  Europe.  Peter  the  Great, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  modern  history,  was 
czar  of  Russia.  Engaged  in  his  heroic  task  of  reorganizing 
his  barbarous  empire  to  a  modem  European  state,  he  was 
desirous  of  obtaining  harbors  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic, 
from  which  sea  he  was  cut  off  by  the  Swedish  possessions. 
August,  a  cousin  of  Charles  XII.,  who  was  elector  of  Sax- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  273 

ony  and  king  of  Poland,  was  anxious  to  take  possession 
of  Livonia.  King  Frederic  IV.  of  Denmark,  also  a  cousin  of 
Charles,  wished  to  suppress  the  duke  of  Holstein,  who  had 
gained  independence,  thanks  to  the  assistance  of  Sweden. 
Czar  Peter  and  King  August  entered  into  a  secret  alliance 
with  each  other.  While  negotiations  for  continued  peace  with 
Sweden  were  still  pending,  the  Russians  secretly  crossed 
the  boundary  in  Ingermanland,  Saxon  troops  entered  Li- 
vonia, and  the  king  of  Denmark  took  possession  of  Hol- 
stein. The  Swedish  council  of  state  was  amazed  at  this 
triple  danger.  Charles  simply  remarked  that  it  was  strange 
that  both  of  his  cousins  wanted  war,  and  expressed  the  hope 
ihat  God  would  support  him  in  his  righteous  cause. 

Charles  XII.  was  eighteen  years  of  age  when  he  entered 
ihis  stupendous  conflict.  He  was  tall  and  slender,  but 
broad-shouldered;  he  had  a  sympathetic  face,  dark-blue 
©yes,  thin  brown  hair,  and  a  carriage  expressing  courage 
and  an  indomitable  spirit.  Upon  entering  actual  warfare, 
Charles  renounced  all  pleasures  and  comforts.  Sharing  tho 
severe  discipline  of  his  soldiers,  he  slept  in  a  tent,  ate  of 
their  rude  food,  and  drank  nothing  but  water.  The  w?g, 
considered  so  indispensable  in  those  days,  was  laid  aside 
and  he  dressed,  like  the  men  of  his  body-guard,  in  a  coat 
of  coarse  blue  cloth  with  large  brass  buttons  and  yellow 
lining.  His  long  sword  was  hung  at  a  yellow  leather 
girdle.  He  wore  high  boots  and  yellow  trousers  made 
of  skin.  In  battle  he  was  always  found  where  the  danger 
was  most  imminent. 

Charles  turned  first  against  Denmark.  A  Swedish  fleet 
of  forty-eight  ships  joined  the  naval  forces  of  equal  strength 
which  the  Swedish  allies,  England  and  Holland,  had  sent 
to  meet  it  in  the  Sound.     A  more  powerful  combination  has 


274  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

never  been  seen  before  or  after  in  Scandinavian  waters. 
Charles  embarked  with  his  troops  on  one  hundred  Scanian 
ships  and  landed  at  Elsinore,  August  4,  1699.  He  was 
impatient  to  reach  shore,  jumped  into  the  water,  which 
reached  to  his  arms,  and  was  followed  by  his  troops, 
who  carried  their  weapons  high  above  the  water.  A  sud- 
den attack  was  made  on  the  Danish  troops  on  shore,  who 
turned  and  fled.  The  Swedes  made  a  temporary  camp 
and  prepared  themselves  for  a  march  on  Copenhagen. 
King  Frederic  was  struck  with  terror  and  hastened  to 
make  peace  with  the  duke  of  Holstein,  who  was  left'  in 
undisturbed  possession  of  his  country  through  the  treaty 
of  peace  at  Traventhal.  Charles  withdrew  his  troops  at 
once,  although  reluctantly,  having  wished  to  crush  the 
power  of  Denmark.  He  had  maintained  the  strictest  dis- 
cipline in  his  camp,  and  treated  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try with  gentleness.  The  Danish  peasants,  who  abundantly 
brought  necessary  provisions,  said  to  the  king:  "You  do 
us  no  harm  because  you  are  the  son  of  our  pious  Ulrica 
Eleonore."  The  king  answered:  **"What  I  have  done  I 
have  been  forced  to  do.  But  rest  assured  that  I  shall  from 
this  day  be  the  upright  friend  of  your  king." 

Charles  now  turned  against  Russia.  With  an  army  of 
somewhat  more  than  8,000  men  he  sailed  for  Ingermanland 
to  attack  the  invaders,  at  least  five  times  as  many  in  num- 
bers, who  were  laying  siege  to  the  town  of  Narva.  The 
majority  of  the  Russian  troops  consisted  of  serfs  who  were 
taken  directly  from  their  work  and  were  without  any  mil- 
itary training.  This  army  of  undisciplined  serfs  was  to 
a  great  extent  conunanded  by  foreign  adventurers.  The 
news  of  the  approach  of  the  Swedish  troops  brought  con- 
sternation.    Several  of  the  Russian  officers  shed  tears,  while 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  276 

the  czar  quickly  left  his  army  to  gather  more  troops.  The 
remarkable  battle  of  Narva  was  fought  November  20,  1700. 
King  Charles  offered  the  enemies  a  battle  in  the  open  field, 
but  when  they  refused  to  accept  or  to  come  out,  he  attacked 
them  in  their  trenches,  which  formed  a  semi-circle  around 
the  town  of  Narva,  with  the  wings  touching  the  river  of  the 
same  name.  The  war-cry  of  the  Swedes  was:  **"With  the 
help  of  God!"  Their  attack  was  favored  by  a  snowstorm, 
which  blew  in  the  faces  of  the  Russians,  blinding  them.  The 
enemies  could  tell  that  the  Swedes  were  few  in  numbers, 
but  thought  that  reinforcements  must  be  on  the  way.  The 
trenches  were  filled  with  bundles  of  fagots,  the  ramparts 
were  mounted,  and  the  Russians  thrown  into  confusion. 
The  Russian  cavalry  fled  at  the  opening  of  the  artillery  fire. 
The  rest,  crushed  in  between  the  walls  of  the  town  and  their 
aggressors,  tried  to  escape  on  every  side.  The  Swedes  soon 
had  cut  the  immense  Russian  line  of  troops  in  twain  at  the 
centre.  The  half  which  consisted  of  the  right  wing  moved 
down  to  the  bridge  over  the  Narva  River.  But  the  bridge 
gave  way  under  the  weight  of  the  first  3,000  men,  who 
found  their  graves  in  the  river  below.  The  rest  of  the  right 
wing  was  hedged  in  between  the  Swedes  and  the  river. 
The  regiments  of  the  Russian  guards,  who  were  the  most 
experienced  of  the  troops,  fought  bravely  for  some  time, 
but  great  confusion  ensued  among  the  others,  the  soldiers 
wanting  to  kill  their  foreign  officers,  whom  they  blamed  for 
the  catastrophe.  The  chief  commander,  Duke  de  Croi,  with 
several  other  foreigners,  for  this  reason  surrendered  to  the 
king. 

The  Russian  soldiers  of  the  right  wing,  abandoned  by 
their  superior  officers,  made  heroic  efforts  to  defend  them- 
selves behind  barricades  which  they  erected  for  the  mo- 


376  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

ment.  King  Charles  hastened  to  the  spot,  but  was  very 
near  losing  his  life  in  passing  through  a  swamp.  He  sank 
so  deep  that  the  water  rose  to  his  neck,  and  he  could  save 
himself  only  by  leaving  his  horse,  his  sword,  and  one  of  hia 
heavy  boots  behind  in  the  mud.  "Without  in  the  least  im- 
proving his  condition,  the  king  took  another  horse  and 
sought  his  way  to  the  heart  of  the  battle.  The  Russians 
were  killed  in  masses,  but  did  not  surrender  before  King 
Charles  had  taken  a  Russian  battery,  thus  depriving  them 
of  the  last  hope  of  being  reunited  with  the  left  wing.  The 
latter,  who  kept  in  the  vicinity  of  their  trenches,  had  fought 
with  a  good  deal  of  courage.  At  nightfall  two  officers 
were  sent  from  the  right  wing  to  ask  the  king  for  an 
armistice,  which  was  granted.  King  Charles  spent  the 
night  in  his  wet  clothes,  by  the  bivouac  fire,  on  the  ground, 
his  head  resting  in  the  lap  of  one  of  his  soldiers.  In  the 
morning,  before  dawn,  two  Russian  generals  arrived,  de- 
manding free  leave  for  the  remainder  of  the  right  wing. 
This  was  granted,  but  the  superior  officers  had  to  remaiq 
as  prisoners  of  war.  The  commander  of  the  left  wing  also 
opened  negotiations.  Free  leave  was  granted  them  upon 
the  surrender  of  their  arms.  It  must  have  been  an  im- 
pressive sight  to  see  the  body  of  12,000  Russians,  with 
heads  uncovered,  who  passed  in  line  by  only  half  as  many 
Swedes,  depositing  their  banners  and  arms  at  the  feet  o| 
Charles  XII.  It  was  a  wise  plan  to  keep  as  prisoners  only 
the  superior  officers,  for  the  Swedes  had  not  the  means  at 
hand  to  watch  and  feed  so  many  prisoners  as  those  who 
were  allowed  a  free  leave.  In  the  battle  of  Narva  18,000 
Russians  were  killed  or  captured;  the  hostile  camp,  bag- 
gage  and  artillery  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors, 
Charles  XII.  made  his  solemn  entry  into  Narva,  where 


HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN  277 

Te  Deum  was  sung  in  the  cathedral.  Charles  with  his  own 
hand  crossed  out  all  expressions  of  vainglory  over  the  suc- 
cess or  disdain  of  the  vanquished  which  occurred  in  the 
official  account  of  the  victory  to  be  sent  to  Stockholm. 

In  the  following  year  Charles  XII.  turned  against  his 
third  enemy,  King  August.  Saxon  troops,  10,000  strong, 
were  joined  by  19,000  Russians,  and  had  taken  a  strongly 
fortified  position  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  river  Dvina. 
Charles  decided  to  cross  the  river  from  Livonia  and  attack 
the  enemy.  The  famous  crossing  of  the  Dvina  was  planned 
in  all  details  by  Eric  Dahlberg,  the  venerable  hero  and 
engineer  from  the  wars  of  Charles  X.  and  Chairles  XI. 
Baron  Dahlberg  died  not  long  after  this  memorable  event. 
It  was  June  27,  1701.  The  Swedish  infantry  was  carried 
across  in  prams,  the  cavalry  on  fleet-bridges  provided  with 
wooden  walls  on  hinges,  which,  when  erect,  were  a  protec- 
tion against  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  and,  when  let  down, 
formed  gangways  for  the  landing.  In  front  of  all  boats 
loaded  with  hay  and  straw  were  sent  out,  which  were 
ignited,  sending  a  thick,  disagreeable  smoke  in  the  face  of 
the  enemy.  The  artillery  in  the  prams  kept  up  a  disastrous 
fire.  Charles  XII.  was  one  of  the  first  to  land,  and  opened 
the  attack  when  only  half  of  his  infantry  had  reached  the 
shore.  The  Russians  soon  scattered  in  wild  flight.  The 
Saxons  withstood  three  powerful  attacks,  but  at  last  fol- 
lowed the  bad  example  set  by  their  allies.  The  battle  was 
fought  and  won  before  the  Swedish  cavalry  had  reached 
the  shore.  The  bountiful  provisions  of  the  scattered  army 
were  captured.  The  crossing  of  the  Dvina  was  executed 
under  the  direction  of  Charles  Magnus  Stuart  and  Count 
Magnus  Stenbock. 

The  victories  of  the  young  hero  king  and  his  valiant 


278  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

soldiers  aroused  the  admiration  of  all  Europe,  and  much 
sympathy  was  expressed  for  Sweden,  who  had  so  success- 
fully warded  off  a  deceitful  and  unjust  attack.  Charles 
XII.  received  offers  of  peace  from  his  enemies,  but  he  did 
not  accept  them.  He  did  not  believe  that  his  treacherous 
neighbors  would  keep  their  promises,  and  he  was  no  doubt 
right.  He  ought  to  have  crushed  Russia  first,  but  his  vic- 
tory over  Czar  Peter  had  been  too  easily  acquired  to  make 
him  realize  the  genius,  power  and  resources  of  this  semi- 
barbarous  enemy.  Charles  considered  King  August  a  more 
formidable  opponent,  which  was  a  mistake;  but  his  sus- 
picion that  the  latter  would  attack  him  from  behind  if  he 
entered  Russia  would  probably  have  proved  to  be  well 
founded  had  circumstances  permitted.  So  Charles  invaded 
Poland,  resolved  to  gain  by  the  interior  conflict  which  was 
disturbing  the  peace  of  that  coimtry.  He  wanted  to  de- 
throne August  and  select  a  prince  who  would  keep  faith 
with  Sweden. 

The  Polish  empire  had  not  taken  any  active  part  in  the 
war  against  Sweden,  but  Charles  XII.  demanded  that  the 
Poles  should  prove  their  good  faith  by  dethroning  August 
and  by  choosing  a  native  king.  When  they  refused,  he  let 
his  army  enter  Poland.  For  four  years  King  Charles  re- 
mained there,  marching  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  the 
other.  He  conquered  the  Polish  capitals  of  Warsaw  and 
Cracow,  and  several  other  fortified  places,  winning  over 
a  considerable  group  within  the  nobility.  In  1704  the  Diet 
of  Warsaw  was  called,  at  which  the  Polish  nobles,  in  the 
presence  of  Swedish  troops  under  the  command  of  Count 
Arvid  Horn,  were  compelled  to  deprive  August  of  his 
crown  and  elect  a  new  king  according  to  the  instructions 
of  King  Charles.     The  new  king  chosen  was  the  noble,  but 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  279 

incapable  Stanislav  Leczinski,  who  belonged  to  an  aristo- 
cratic family  of  little  influence  and  few  connections.  He 
was  an  upright  and  highly  educated  man,  but  lacked  en- 
ergy. King  August  was  not  willing  to  abdicate,  for  which 
reason  King  Charles  pursued  him  into  his  hereditary  land. 
The  line  of  march  to  Saxony  went  through  Silesia,  a  neu- 
tral country  belonging  to  the  empire  of  Austria.  As  the 
army  of  August  had  been  allowed  to  pass  this  country, 
Charles  argued  that  the  same  right  must  be  granted  him 
and  his  troops.  At  the  river  Oder,  Charles  was  met  by 
a  number  of  persecuted  Protestants,  who,  kneeling  and 
weeping,  prayed  for  his  assistance  in  pleading  their  cause 
before  the  emperor.  Charles  promised  them  to  do  so,  and 
kept  his  word. 

The  Swedish  army  entered  Saxony  in  the  year  1706. 
The  inhabitants,  who  had  in  a  clear  memory  the  acts  of  reck- 
lessness and  cruelty  committed  by  the  troops  of  John  Bandr, 
fled  for  their  lives,  taking  along  all  the  property  that  could 
be  moved.  To  their  great  surprise,  they  saw  the  Swedes 
encamp  themselves  as  quietly  as  in  time  of  serenest  peace. 
No  violence  was  committed.  Nothing  was  taken,  except 
in  exchange  for  money.  But  a  heavy  war  tax  was  imposed, 
which  made  both  August  and  his  people  inclined  to  seek  an 
early  end  of  the  war. 

Thanks  to  the  means  raised  in  this  manner,  the  Swedish 
army  was  provided  with  an  entirely  new  outfit  of  clothes 
and  furnished  with  necessary  provisions.  Every  regiment 
established  a  savings  bank  of  its  own,  in  which  the  soldiers 
deposited  their  earnings.  The  castle  of  Alt-Ranstsedt  was 
the  headquarters  of  Charles  XII.,  situated  close  by  the 
memorable  battlefield  of  Lutzen.  The  sojourn  of  Charles 
XII.  in  Saxony  was  an  incident  of  universal  importance 


280  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

to  the  history  of  Europe.  He  had  with  his  soldiers  ap- 
proached the  scene  of  a  conflict  which  was  shaking  the 
whole  of  Western  and  Southern  Europe.  The  situation 
was  such  that  it  for  the  moment  hung  at  the  point  of  the 
victorious  sword  of  Charles  XII.  The  great  question  was 
whether  he  was  resolved  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  uni- 
versal conflict.  Charles  was  besieged  at  his  headquarters 
by  princes,  warriors  and  statesmen,  who  came  to  pay  their 
respects,  desirous  of  winning  his  favor  and  of  getting  an 
idea  of  his  plans.  The  Swedish  invasion  of  Saxony  was 
highly  beneficial  to  the  interests  of  France,  and  Louis  XIV. 
was  the  first  to  admit  it,  anxious  to  make  the  stay  of 
Charles  as  long  as  possible,  because  it  had  caused  a  stand- 
still in  the  hostilities  against  France.  The  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough was  among  the  visitors  of  Charles  XII.  He 
brought  a  letter  of  courtesy  from  Queen  Anne,  who  wrote 
that  the  letter  "came  not  from  her  chancery  but  from  her 
heart,  and  was  written  by  her  own  hand.'*  She  longed 
to  meet  the  famous  king  personally.  The  duke*s  errand  was 
to  find  out  whether  Charles  was  to  join  the  fighting  forces 
of  Western  Europe  or  to  attack  Russia.  He  was  glad  to 
learn  that  the  latter  move  was  the  one  which  the  king  had 
in  mind.  Although  the  two  great  warriors  expressed  mu- 
tual admiration,  neither  was  sympathetically  impressed  by 
the  other.  Charles  XII.  thought  Marlborough  looked  **too 
fine'*  for  a  soldier,  while  the  latter  thought  the  rude  sim- 
pHcity  of  the  king  an  affectation  by  which  to  obtain  noto- 
riety. On  account  of  the  great  influx  of  distinguished  visi- 
tors, the  style  of  living  was  quite  different  at  the  royal 
headquarters  of  Alt-Ranstsedt  to  what  it  was  during  the 
Polish  and  Russian  wars.  But  the  king  kept  up  the  heavy 
military  drills  and  long  individual  expeditions  on  horseback, 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  281 

which  he  thought  indispensable.  One  of  the  first  ones  of 
the  latter  which  he  undertook  was  to  visit  the  battlefield 
of  Lutzen.  The  king  remembered  distinctly  all  that  he 
had  read  about  the  famous  battle,  and  made  clear  to  his 
generals  the  various  positions  of  the  two  armies.  At 
Schwedenstein,  the  place  where  Gustavus  Adolphus  fell, 
he  lingered  for  a  long  while  in  silence.  At  last  he  said: 
••I  always  have  tried  to  live  as  he  did.  May  God  grant 
me  the  grace  of  dying  in  like  manner.*' 

King  August  was  satisfied  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace, 
which  was  signed  at  Alt-Ransts9dt.  He  renoimced  the 
crown  of  Poland  and  recognized  Stanislav  Leczinski  as 
the  legitimate  king.  August  turned  over  John  Reinhold 
Patkul,  a  Livonian  traitor,  who  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  XI.  had  made  himself  disagreeably  conspicuous, 
and  who  had  been  intriguing  against  Sweden  ever  since. 
Charles  XII.  was,  in  gentleness  and  justice,  far  in  advance 
of  his  contemporaries,  but  he  made  an  exception  to  his 
ordinary  course  of  clemency  in  the  case  of  Patkul,  who 
was  executed  according  to  the  cruel  practice  of  the  time. 
When  the  Swedish  army  left  their  camp,  after  peace  was 
made,  the  regiments  were  for  many  miles  followed  by  the 
grateful  inhabitants,  who,  with  tears  in  their  eyes,  gave 
evidence  of  their  friendship.  The  reason  was  that  the  good- 
natured  soldiers  of  the  regular  army  had  followed  the  habits 
of  their  country  in  assisting  their  temporary  hosts  in  their 
various  rural  pursuits.  The  Swedes  were  greeted  by  the 
people  of  Silesia  with  great  enthusiasm,  out  of  gratitude  for 
the  improved  conditions  which  the  emperor  had  granted 
them,  at  the  request  of  the  king.  Charles  XII.  thus 
m^de  good,  in  a  measure,  the  acts  of  violence  committed 
by   the   Swedish    army   during  the   Thirty   Years*    War, 


282  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

and  prored   that  he  had  at  heart  the  cause  of  religious 
Kberty. 

Czar  Peter  was  now  to  be  punished,  when  it  was  too 
late.  The  Russians  had  invaded  the  Baltic  provinces  and 
captured  the  fortress  of  Nceteborg,  which  Czar  Peter  gave 
the  new  and  significant  name  of  Schluesselburg.  The  new 
Russian  capital  of  St.  Petersburg,  with  formidable  for- 
tresses, was  founded  in  1703.  The  laborers  were  carried 
away  by  force  from  the  various  parts  of  the  immense  em- 
pire. They  died  in  great  numbers  of  prostration  and  of 
fevers,  the  Swedes  also  doing  their  best  to  impede  the 
progress  of  the  work.  The  vacancies  were  rapidly  filled 
by  new  multitudes.  While  the  Swedish  king  was  fighting 
in  Poland,  the  provinces  of  Ingermanland,  Esthonia  and 
Livonia  were  overrun  by  the  Russians,  who  devastated  the 
country  with  acts  of  cruelty.  Dorpat  was  captured  and 
Narva  fell  after  a  bloody  conflict,  being  bravely  defended 
by  Rudolph  Horn.  The  Russians  destroyed  the  Swedish 
navy  of  the  Lake  Peipus  and  penetrated  to  the  province 
of  Courland  where  Charles  XII.  had  left  a  considerable 
detachment  of  troops.  The  plan  of  Czar  Peter  to  conquer 
Courland  and  cut  off  Charles  from  the  connections  with  his 
empire  was  frustrated  by  General  Adam  Louis  Lewen. 
haupt.'  He  met  a  formidable  Russian  force,  several  times 
as  numerous  as  his  own,  at  Gemauerthof,  near  Mitau, 
which  he  routed,  in  1705. 

'  Lewenhaupt  is  a  German  translation  of  the  old  Swedish  family 
name  of  Leijonhufvud,  and  carried  by  a  branch  whose  members  held 
the  dignity  of  counts.  Almost  similar  is  the  derivation  of  Von  Rosea 
from  Tre  Kosor,  etc.  During  the  Period  of  Political  Grandeur,  and  later, 
it  was  a  habit  of  certain  branches  of  the  old  Swedish  nobility  to  trans- 
\sLte  or  Germanize  their  names  in  this  way.  The  burghers  and  clergy- 
men followed  the  custom  when  being  ennobled,  Archaic  spelling  was 
preserved,  or  adopted,  in  most  cases. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  283 

Sweden  stood  alone  in  her  struggle  with  Russia.  The 
old  alliance  with  England  and  Holland  was  no  longer  in 
existence.  The  continental  powers  were  too  busily  engaged 
in  the  West  to  assist  in  checking  the  rising  power  of  the 
Eastern  giant.  For  the  limited  resources  of  Sweden  he  was 
too  big  already.  Charles  XII.  had  with  him  a  stately  and 
well-equipped  army  of  44,000,  which,  by  contemporary 
authors,  was  pronounced  to  have  consisted  of  the  finest 
soldiers  of  the  world.  Charles  was  to  attack  Russia  from 
Poland,  for  the  devastated  Baltic  provinces  could  no  longer 
support  an  army  with  the  necessary  provisions.  General 
Lewenhaupt  was  to  join  him  from  Livonia  with  an  army 
of  12,000  men  and  ample  provisions.  Another  Swedish 
commander.  General  Lybecker,  was  to  attack  and  destroy 
St.  Petersburg,  with  an  army  of  the  same  size,  from  his 
headquarters  in  Finland.  The  total  of  Swedish  troops  dis- 
tributed in  various  directions  amounted  to  100,000,  the 
largest  regular  army  Sweden  ever  had  put  up.  Charles 
had  concluded  to  engage  semi-barbarous  allies  in  a  bat- 
tle against  a  semi-barbarous  enemy.  In  1707  he  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  Turkey,  and,  about  the  same 
time,  another  with  Mazeppa,  an  old  ambitious  Cossack 
leader  who  wanted  to  establish  his  supremacy  over  the 
steppes  of  Russia.  The  plans  of  Charles  XII.  for  the  in 
vasion  of  Russia  have  often  been  severely  criticised,  but 
competent  judges  of  our  day  have  declared  that  they  were 
not  only  elaborate  but  highly  ingenious.  They  miscarried 
on  account  of  arrangements  which  could  not  be  made  ac- 
cording to  expectations,  and  on  account  of  Czar  Peter's  prac- 
tice of  laying  bare  and  waste  the  parts  of  his  own  country 
through  which  the  invaders  were  to  pass.  Furthermore^ 
Charles  had  sent  home  to  Sweden  several  of  his  best  gen- 


884  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

erals,  such  as  Arvid  Horn  and  Magnus  Stenbock.  This 
was  done  after  the  successes  in  Poland,  and  was  a  good 
thing  in  itself,  for  the  men  mentioned  were  exactly  those 
who  were  destined  to  save  the  very  existence  and  honor 
of  a  country  which  was  deprived  of  its  political  grandeur 
through  the  heedlessness  of  King  Charles.  But  without 
them  he  was  surrounded  by  inexperienced  men  only. 
Chariee  Gustavus  Rehnskiold  was  the  most  conspicuous 
of  these,  a  valiant  but  reckless  man,  who  only  understood 
certain  details  of  the  elaborate  expedition. 

When  the  Swedes  were  approaching  Russian  territory, 
Czar  Peter  made  offers  of  peace  which  the  French  ambas- 
sador urged  Charies  to  accept.  Charies  answered;  **He 
does  not  mean  it.  He  wishes  the  world  to  believe  that  he 
wants  peace  and  I  war."  Czar  Peter  had  organized  his 
army  through  a  wonderful  exertion  of  energy,  built  new 
fortresses  and  strengthened  the  old  ones,  enforced  discipline 
and  gathered  ammunition.  Able  officers  had  been  trained 
in  the  repeated  conflicts  with  the  Swedes.  These  took  the 
lead  of  the  army  movements. 

Charles  left  Poland  with  somewhat  more  than  30,000 
men,  entering  Lithuania  and  chasing  the  Russians  before 
him.  A  last  great  victory  was  won  by  Charles  XII.  at 
Holovzin  in  Lithuania,  in  1708.  The  Swedish  army  crossed 
the  Dniepr  and  marched  to  Mohilev.  Charles  lingered  in 
this  place  for  a  month,  anxiously  awaiting  the  arrival  of 
General  Lew^ihaupt.  The  latter  remained  in  Livonia  dur- 
ing all  this  time,  the  letter  ordering  him  to  join  the  central 
army  not  reaching  him  in  due  time.  The  march  was  con- 
tinued toward  Smolensk,  but  King  Charles  thought  that  he 
could  only  reach  Moscow  over  that  route  with  the  greatest 
difficulty,  and  changed  his  course,  marching  toward  the 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  285 

Ukraine  to  join  Mazeppa  and  the  Tartars.  Mazeppa  had 
been  vexed  by  the  long  delay,  and  was,  besides,  not  able 
to  gather  the  forces  which  he  had  promised.  Czar  Peter 
captured  his  stronghold,  and  Mazeppa  reached  the  Swedish 
army  more  like  a  fugitive  than  an  ally.  The  expedition 
of  General  Lybecker  against  St.  Petersburg  proved  a  fail- 
ure. Lewenhaupt,  who  had  at  last  received  his  order, 
moved  into  Russia.  At  Liesna  he  met  a  hostile  army  con- 
siderably larger  than  his  own.  After  a  fierce  battle,  which 
involved  a  great  loss  of  life,  Lewenhaupt  broke  through  the 
Russian  lines.  He  had  been  forced  to  destroy  the  great 
amount  of  provisions  which  he  had  gathered,  and  reached 
the  army  of  King  Charles  in  a  very  different  state  than  was 
anticipated.  The  king  found  himself  in  a  difficult  position, 
being  cut  off  from  all  connections  with  his  country  and  in 
want  of  provisions. 

The  battle  of  Pultowa,  which  was  fought  June  28,  1709, 
decided  for  centuries  the  contest  over  the  political  suprem- 
acy of  Northern  Europe.  Charles  XII.,  with  his  army, 
which  had  been  reduced  to  18,000  men,  laid  siege  to  the 
important  town  of  Pultowa,  by  the  river  Vorskla.  The 
Russian  army,  50,000  strong,  under  the  command  of  Czar 
Peter,  hastened  toward  the  enemy.  The  fear  of  the  terri- 
ble Swedes  was  as  yet  so  strong  in  them  that  they  did  not 
risk  an  attack,  but  built  a  strongly  fortified  camp.  King 
Charles,  with  his  army  in  distress,  further  reduced  to  only 
12,000  men,  and  in  want  even  of  ammunition,  saw  no  other 
way  than  to  fight.  He  was  himself  wounded  in  the  foot 
and  unable  to  take  command  in  person.  General  Rehn- 
skiold,  who  led  the  cavalry,  acted  as  general  commander 
during  the  battle,  which  position  he  was  not  able  to  fill; 
Lewenhaupt  commanded  the  right  wing  with  decided  sue- 


286  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

cess.  He  forced  the  enemy  to  abandon  three  of  its  seven 
forts,  and  saw  it  once  inclined  to  leave  in  flight.  The  left 
wing  of  the  Swedish  army  was  brought  into  disorder  and 
receded.  King  Charles,  who  suffered  greatly  from  his 
wounded  foot,  was  carried  on  a  litter  between  the  lines, 
encouraging  his  soldiers  and  dealing  out  new  orders.  The 
litter  was  soon  shattered,  and  the  horse  which  the  king 
mounted  was  shot  under  him.  He  saved  himself  by  accept- 
ing the  horse  of  one  of  his  officers.  Rehnskiold,  who  ap- 
peared nervous  and  confused,  offered  only  a  lame  assistance 
with  the  cavalry.  While  riding  back  and  forth  in  his  heed- 
less anxiety  to  be  useful,  without  obtaining  his  object,  he 
rode  into  the  Russian  Hues  and  was  made  a  prisoner.  The 
same  fate  befell  Count  Piper,  the  aged  adviser  of  King 
Charles.  Lewenhaupt  kept  up  his  heroic  struggle  on  the 
right  wing,  but  his  forces  were  greatly  reduced  by  the  fire 
of  the  Russian  artillery.  The  Swedes  had ^  lost  the  battle. 
Their  infantry  had  especially  suffered  great  losses.  A  great 
number  of  the  ablest  officers  were  killed  or  made  prisoners. 
As  an  illustration  may  be  quoted  the  fact  that  among  the 
killed  were  twenty-two  officers  of  the  Wrangel  family. 
The  Russians  made  no  fierce  pursuit,  and  the  remnants  of 
the  Swedish  army  were  given  time  to  recede  to  the  shore 
of  the  Dniepr  where  this  river  is  joined  by  the  Voifekla. 
The  change  of  route  toward  the  Ukraine  had  been  made 
contrary  to  the  advice  of  Count  Piper;  the  march  to  the 
Dniepr  was  made  contrary  to  that  of  Coimt  Lewenhaupt. 
The  Swedish  troops  were  in  fact  shut  in  between  the  mighty 
rivers,  which  they  lacked  the  means  to  cross,  and  the 
surrounding  mountains,  lined  with  Russian  artillery, 
Charles  was  unwilling  to  leave  his  army,  but  Lewenhaupt 
persuaded  him  to  save  his  life.     Mazeppa  had  crossed  the 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  287 

Dniepr  with  his  troops.  Charles  followed  in  the  night  of 
July  1st  with  1,000  of  his  men.  With  500  Swedes  Charles 
reached  the  Turkish  town  of  Bender,  where  ho  was  at  first 
resolved  to  remain  only  until  his  wound  was  healed.  Lew- 
enhaupt,  who  now  was  in  command,  surrendered  to  the 
Russians  the  following  morning,  with  all  the  rest  of  the 
army.  This  course  was  inevitable;  another  battle  would 
only  have  caused  new  and  useless  sacrifices  of  human  lives. 
A  sad  fate  awaited  the  Swedes  in  Russian  captivity. 
Only  a  few  saw  their  homes  again,  after  years  of  suffering. 
Rehnskiold  was  among  these.  The  majority,  like  Lewen- 
haupt  and  Piper,  died  in  captivity.  Considerable  informa- 
tion about  the  experiences  of  the  Swedish  prisoners  in 
Russia  is  found  in  their  memoirs  and  note-books,  preserved 
to  this  day.  It  appears  that  the  treatment  which  they 
received  varied  greatly,  according  to  circumstances.  Czar 
Peter  wished  to  keep  the  Swedish  captives  in  the  country 
as  long  as  possible,  with  the  object  of  favorably  influencing 
his  barbarous  subjects  by  their  superior  abilities  and  culture. 
He  had  commanded  clemency  in  their  treatment;  but  his 
orders  must  have  been  disobeyed,  for  many  Swedish  sol- 
diers are  known  to  have  perished  in  the  sulphur  mines. 
In  Tobolsk  and  other  towns  of  Siberia,  Swedish  majors  and 
captains  were  in  great  numbers  occupied  in  the  humble 
pursuits  of  teachers,  barbers,  tailors,  painters  and  black- 
smiths. Some  kept  shops  and  others  made  articles  of  the 
Swedish  sloyd,  in  which  there  was  no  competition  in  the 
market.  The  pastimes  were  music  and  theatricals.  There 
were,  among  these  thousands  of  prisoners,  9  generals,  17 
colonels,  27  lieutenant-colonels,  38  majors,  494  captains, 
975  lieutenants,  67  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  etc.  A  good 
many  of  these  were  Swedish  subjects  of  'German  descent. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

or  foreigners  in  Swedish  service.  The  prisoners  tried  their 
best  to  make  it  as  pleasant  for  themselves  as  possible.  They 
formed  a  httle  community  of  their  own  in  Moscow,  with 
Piper  and  Rehnskiold  as  their  highest  officials.  Georg 
Nordberg,  pastor  of  the  body-guards,  was  made  the  president 
of  a  chapter-house,  which  held  church  conferences,  issued 
texts  for  special  services,  examined  and  consecrated  min- 
isters. Czar  Peter  tried  to  attract  some  of  the  ablest  officers 
to  him  by  promises  of  liberty  and  remunerative  positions. 
Many  of  the  captives,  seeing  no  prospect  of  freedom,  de- 
cided to  remain  in  the  country,  entered  the  Greek  church 
and  married  Russian  women.  Some  who  could  not  endure 
captivity  made  a  revolt  at  Kasan,  killing  the  armed  troops, 
and  making  an  attempt  to  reach  their  own  beloved  country. 
The  plot  was  frustrated  and  was  of  sinister  consequences, 
for  the  Swedish  captives  commenced  from  that  time,  1711, 
to  be  transported  to  Siberia  in  great  numbers.  This  was 
only  to  move  the  important  work  of  civilization  eastward. 
The  captives,  instead  of  succumbing  to  the  severe  climate, 
unfolded  the  great  energy  of  their  race,  cheerfully  accom- 
modating their  hves  to  the  new  requirements  and  devoting 
their  time  to  travels  for  scientific  research,  or  mercantile 
purposes,  in  Russian  service,  or  on  their  own  responsibility. 
They  made  accounts  and  maps  of  undiscovered  and  un- 
explored parts  of  Siberia,  gathering  results  which  have 
been  of  great  importance  to  later  explorers,  geologists  and 
ethnographers.  Principal  among  these  scientists  are  Philip 
John  von  Strahlenberg,  whose  great  book  on  Siberia  waa 
published  in  Leipsic  in  1730,  and  John  Anton  Mat^rn  and 
Peter  Schoenstroem,  his  collaborators;  John  Gustavus 
Benat,  made  a  prisoner  by  the  Kalmucks,  whom  he 
taught  the  secrets  of  manufacturing  cannon  and  bombs, 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  289 

and  of  printing  books  with  movable  types;  Lorenz  Lange, 
who  was  secretary  of  several  Russian  embassies  to  the 
imperial  court  of  China,  about  which  country  he  has  given 
valuable  information;  John  B.  Muller,  John  Schnitscher 
and  Ambjoern  MoUn.  Tobolsk  was  the  centre  of  the  Swed- 
ish colonies  in  Siberia,  where  a  pecuHar  sect  grew  up  among 
those  of  deep  religious  sentiment.  A  sectarian  school,  with 
more  than  100  pupils,  was  established,  and  the  German 
pietist,  Aug.  Herrman  Francke,  for  some  time  supported 
the  movement.  Governor  Gagarin,  who  wanted  to  make 
himself  ruling  sovereign  of  Siberia,  arranged  a  formidable 
conspiracy.  It  was  discovered,  the  governor  was  hanged, 
and  the  Swedish  captives  who  were  involved  in  it  were  sent 
still  further  away  to  Nerschinsk. 

If  Charles  XII.,  up  to  the  date  of  the  terrible  battle  of 
Pultowa,  has  deserved  our  sympathy,  in  spite  of  his  faults 
and  mistakes,  it  is  impossible  to  look  upon  him  in  the  same 
charitable  light  for  the  rest  of  his  career.  The  great  defeat 
and  the  loss  of  his  army  he  described  in  letters  to  his  sister, 
Ulrica  Eleonore,  and  the  state  council,  as  small  misfor- 
tunes, without  consequence,  which  he  was  soon  to  repair. 
Instead  of  trying  his  utmost  to  obtain  pesice  on  the  best 
possible  conditions  for  his  poor  country,  and  instead  of 
saving  his  unhappy  army  from  the  miseries  of  captivity, 
he  made  plans  for  new  campaigns  and  demands  for  a  new 
army.  Czar  Peter  expressed  more  correct  views  of  the 
Bituation.  A  few  hours  after  the  battle  of  Pultowa  he 
wrote  to  Admiral  Apraxin :  *  'Now  rests  at  last  secure  our 
city  on  the  Neva.*'  And  he  was  right.  The  period  of 
the  political  grandeur  of  Sweden  was  at  an  end. 

Great  was  the  renowned  heroism  of  Charles  XII.  and 
his  warriors.     Still  greater,  although  less  renowned,   the 

XX 13 


«90  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

heroism  with  which  his  poor  and  neglected  country  suffered 
the  disasters  which  these  glorious  deeds  brought  upon  it. 
The  regular  troops  of  the  army  created  by  Charles  XI. 
had  not  been  sufficient.  New  regiments  were,  one  after 
the  other,  created  by  means  of  increased  taxes  and  repeated 
enhstments,  until  it  appeared  as  if  the  whole  male  popula- 
tion was  to  be  sent  out  in  the  endless  wars,  to  be  killed  or 
imprisoned,  and  the  distressed  country  doomed  to  inevitable 
destruction.  Plague,  hunger  and  emigration  threatened 
to  make  away  with  those  spared  from  military  service. 
Swedes  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  difficulty  in  appre- 
hending how  the  country  was  able  to  endure  such  terrible 
hardships. 

The  consequences  of  the  defeat  at  Pultowa  soon  became 
manifest.  The  enemies  of  Sweden  had  formed  a  better 
idea  of  the  resources  of  the  country  than  had  its  own  ruler, 
and  were  resolved  to  profit  by  it.  King  August  at  once 
declared  the  treaty  of  Alt-Ranstsedt  to  be  null  and  void,  and 
entered  Poland,  where  he  in  a  short  time  recovered  his 
lost  authority.  Stanislav  fled  and  sought  a  refuge  on 
Swedish  territory.  King  Charles  later  gave  him  his  little 
hereditary  land  of  Palatinate-Zweibrucken.  King  Frederic 
of  Denmark  declared  war  upon  untenable  grounds  and  had 
an  army  of  16,000  men  invade  Scania.  Helsingborg  was 
captured  without  difficulty.  Great  consternation  was 
caused  by  this  assault  upon  the  unhappy  and  apparently 
defenceless  country.  The  state  council  was  brought  to 
despair.  The  situation  was  saved  by  Count  Magnus  Sten- 
bock,  the  able  general.  After  having  served  as  quarter- 
master-general of  the  Swedish  army  in  Poland,  he  was  sent 
back  to  Sweden,  being  governor-general  of  Scania  at  the 
time  when  this  province  was  invaded.     He  had  not  with 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEir  291 

lum  the  necessary  troops  to  meet  the  enemy,  but  left  for 
Smaland,  where  he  gathered  an  army  of  peasants,  chiefly 
consisting  of  inexperienced  but  sturdy  youths  in  wooden 
shoes  and  coats  of  goatskins.  From  Yexio,  where  he  had 
met  his  new  mustered  troops,  Stenbock  returned  to  Scania, 
in  February,  1710,  obtaining  the  reinforcements  of  a  few 
additional  regiments,  which  swelled  his  army  to  the  num- 
ber of  14,000  men.  The  well-equipped  Danish  force,  which, 
after  an  expedition  into  Bleking,  returned  to  Scania,  made 
a  good  deal  of  fun  of  the  "Stenbuk  og  hands  Gededrenge** 
(the  mountain  buck  and  his  goatherds).  Governor  Sten- 
bock understood  how  to  gain  the  confidence  and  rouse  the 
patriotism  of  his  * 'goatherds.**  He  was  soon  sufficiently 
sure  of  their  abiHty  to  risk  a  battle,  which  was  fought  at 
Helsingborg,  February  28,  1710.  The  Danes,  commanded 
by  George  Rantzau,  were  routed,  and  sought  a  refuge 
behind  the  walls  of  the  town.  The  Danish  losses  were 
4,000  killed  and  wounded  and  3,000  prisoners,  with  their 
camp,  artillery  and  baggage.  A  few  days  later  the  Danes 
evacuated  Scania,  returning  to  Seeland.  The  victory  of 
Helsingborg  was  the  most  glorious  of  the  battles  fought 
by  Magnus  Stenbock.  It  saved  Sweden  in  the  hour  of 
direst  distress,  rekindling  the  hope  which  the  battle  of  Pul- 
towa  had  extinguished.  It  was  the  last  time  in  Swedish 
history  that  the  Danes  entered  Scania  as  enemies. 

The  victory  at  Helsingborg  was  only  one  bright  star 
in  a  night  of  darkness.  In  the  Baltic  provinces  the  dis- 
asters followed  close  upon  each  other.  Count  Nils  Strom- 
berg,  the  governor-general  of  Livonia,  was  forced  to  sur- 
render the  town  of  Riga,  July  1,  1710,  after  having  fought 
the  Russians  for  months  with  great  bravery.  The  enemies 
which  forced  the  able  Stromberg  to  give  up  his  cause  were 


«92  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN* 

hunger  and  plagues.  Not  less  than  40,000  Russians  had 
lost  their  lives  outside  the  walls  of  Riga.  Within  a  few 
months  Duenamuende,  Pernau  and  Reval  also  surrendered. 
This  made  complete  the  Russian  conquest  of  the  Swedish 
empire  in  the  Baltic  provinces.  The  operations  against 
Finland,  begun  earlier,  were  continued  with  success.  The 
town  and  fortress  of  Viborg,  which  never  had  been  occupied 
by  foreign  troops,  were  captured  in  June,  and  Kexholm  in 
September.  The  country  was  unmercifully  devastated, 
in  spite  of  solemn  promises  to  the  contrary. 

That  under  such  circumstances  discontent  against  the 
absolute  ruler  was  fostered  seems  only  natural.  During 
the  first  few  years  of  the  Carolinian  campaign  the  noise 
of  the  great  victories  was  stronger  than  the  voices  of  dis- 
content and  complaint.  When  the  glorious  battles  were 
not  followed  by  treaties  of  peace,  the  grumbling  voices 
g^ew  louder.  The  king  was  at  first  not  the  object  of  the 
growing  discontent,  but  the  state  council,  which  was  con- 
sidered to  make  greater  demands  than  were  necessary. 
The  king  was  supposed  to  fight  for  a  righteous  cause 
against  treacherous  enemies,  but  the  truth  dawned  on  a 
good  many  that  a  government  invested  "with  absolute  power 
was  the  cause  of  the  misery.  The  battle  of  Pultowa 
brought  to  a  mature  state  the  thoughts  of  a  change  in  the 
constitution,  thoughts  which  for  years  had  occupied  the 
ablest  men  of  the  country.  The  double  government  was 
to  a  great  extent  responsible  for  the  bad  state  of  affairs. 
The  king  tried  to  rule  with  absolute  power  from  his  head- 
quarters in  Saxony,  Poland  and  the  Ukraine,  with  Piper 
as  his  adviser.  At  home  the  state  council  held  the  reins  of 
government  and  sometimes  acted  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
instructions  or  intentions  of  the  king.     Charles  XII.  was 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  293 

very  jealous  of  his  power,  and  the  state  council,  foremost 
in  which  were  a  few  men  of  the  very  highest  ability,  like 
Count  Arvid  Horn,  was  on  this  account  sometimes  unable 
to  carry  out  its  best  endeavors.  Charles  by  his  methods 
brought  confusion  and  uncertainty  into  the  deliberations 
and  acts  of  the  government,  injuring  the  commonwealth 
and  the  principles  of  an  absolute  monarchy  as  well.  The 
king  was  not  able  to  supervise  the  details  of  his  administra- 
tion, and  unrighteous  officers  profited  thereby,  by  their 
unlawful  collections  of  taxes,  causing-  open  revolts  of  the 
suffering  population  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

The  state  council  took  no  pains  to  hide  the  truth  from 
the  king,  rather  using  strong  colors  in  their  descriptions 
of  the  critical  condition  in  order  to  obtain  the  much-sought- 
for  and  needed  peace,  or  at  least  the  gratification  of  seeing 
the  armies  of  the  country  used  exclusively  for  the  defence 
of  its  own  possessions.  King  Charles  considered  the  mem- 
bers of  the  state  council  as  a  body  of  weaklings,  cowards 
and  fools,  who  painted  the  devil  on  the  wall  because  they 
lacked  the  courage  and  endurance  to  await  the  final  and  in- 
fallible triumph  of  his  royal  arms  in  a  righteous  cause. 
The  climax  was  reached  after  the  arrival  of  Charles  at 
Bender.  The  state  council  commenced  to  negotiate  for 
peace  on  its  own  responsibility.  It  also  convoked  a  com- 
mittee of  the  Estates  of  the  Riksdag  to  a  meeting  for  delib- 
erations on  measures  which  would  better  the  hopeless  con- 
ditions of  the  state  and  people.  King  Charles  learned  of  it 
and  sent  from  Bender  a  remarkable  order,  in  which  he  abso- 
lutely forbade  such  meetings,  **  especially  because  the  last 
convention  of  the  Estates,"  he  wrote,  "had  no  other  con** 
sequence  than  to  let  them  still  plainer  discover  their  impov'^ 
erished  condition." 


2U  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

King  Charles  lingered  in  Bender,  fascinated  by  the  plans 
made  by  several  Turkish  princes  of  an  armed  support 
against  his  enemies,  or  at  least  an  escort  of  troops  for  his 
return  through  Poland.  The  king  succeeded  in  his  eifforts 
to  force  the  sultan  of  Turkey  to  an  attack  on  Russia.  The 
Turks,  200,000  strong,  made  an  invasion,  according  to  plans 
drawn  up  by  Charles,  and  were  successful  in  completely 
surrounding  a  Russian  army,  commanded  by  Czar  Peter  in 
person,  at  the  shores  of  the  river  Pruth.  The  czar  saved 
himself  by  a  supreme  effort,  sacrificing  all  his  gold  and  the 
jewels  of  the  czarina  as  bribes  to  the  grand  vizier,  who  com- 
manded the  Turkish  ai-my.  This  dignitary  let  the  Russians 
escape,  thus  spoiling  the  plans  of  the  whole  campaign.  To 
Charles  it  was  a  great  disappointment.  His  hope  to  see  the 
Russian  giant  crushed,  and  the  defeat  at  Pultowa  avenged, 
was  gone  forever.  His  plan  of  reaching  Poland  with 
Turkish  troops  to  join  Stenbock  and  a  Swedish  army  was 
shaken  with  the  loss  of  confidence  in  his  barbarous  allies. 
The  perfidious  grand  vizier  was  punished,  but  the  agreement 
of  peace  which  he  had  made  with  the  czar  was  sanctioned 
by  the  sultan,  in  1711. 

The  Swedish  state  council  was  quite  reluctant  to  obey 
the  repeated  orders  of  the  king  for  a  new  army,  hesitating 
to  impose  new  burdens  upon  the  suffering  people.  The  king 
grew  impatient  and  there  was  no  escape  possible.  Magnus 
Stenbock,  the  most  popular  man  in  all  Sweden,  set  an 
example  of  personal  sacrifices  which  was  followed  by  many 
others,  and  a  new  army  of  9,000  men  was  at  last  equipped 
with  a  navy  to  carry  it  across  the  Baltic  to  Pomerania. 
Stenbock  landed  in  the  island  of  Rugen,  in  September, 
1712,  and  increased  his  army  to  14,000.  He  abandoned 
the  idea  to  march  toward  Poland  because  the  king  remained 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  295 

at  Bender,  and  entered  Mecklenburg  after  having  skilfully 
avoided  meeting  a  superior  force  of  Russian  and  Saxon 
troops,  which  followed  him  at  a  distance.  Negotiations 
of  peace  had  been  commenced  before  the  arrival  of  Stenbock, 
between  the  dethroned  Stanislav  of  Poland,  who  was  then 
in  Pomerania,  and  King  August.  This  caused  a  standstill 
in  the  operations,  an  armistice  of  a  fortnight  having  been 
agreed  to,  with  a  prospect  of  renewal.  The  Danes  made 
an  end  to  it,  entering  Mecklenburg  in  December.  When  the 
armistice  was  at  an  end,  Stenbock  hastened  with  his  troops 
to  Gadebusch,  where  the  Danish  army  was  encamped,  by 
this  rapid  move  preventing  the  latter  from  joining  the  Rus- 
sian and  Saxon  forces.  Only  a  detachment  of  Saxon  cav- 
alry had  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Danish  camp.  The 
battle  of  Gadebusch  was  fought  December  9,  1712,  and 
was  the  last  of  the  great  victories  on  land  that  a  Swedish 
army  ever  won  on  the  Continent.  The  Danes  were  crush- 
ingly  defeated,  and  their  allies  found  it  safest  to  return  to 
their  former  fortified  positions.  The  Swedish  artillery, 
commanded  by  Charles  Cronstedt,  distinguished  itself  in 
this  battle  against  an  enemy  of  superior  strength.  But 
Stenbock  could  not  for  any  length  of  time  keep  up  the 
struggle  against  the  armies  of  three  countries,  not  receiving 
any  support  from  Sweden,  nor  sufficient  provisions  in  Meck- 
lenburg. "When  the  Danes  burned  the  town  of  Stade,  Sten- 
bock in  revenge  burned  Altona,  toward  the  end  of  the  year. 
His  army  was  reduced  for  lack  of  provisions,  and  Stenbock 
saw  no  other  course  to  take  than  to  shut  himself  up  with 
his  troops  in  the  fortress  of  Toenning,  in  the  possession  of 
the  young  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp.  Stenbock  persevered 
in  his  hopes  for  support  from  Sweden,  or  friendly  powers, 
in  vain.     Efforts  were  made  in  Sweden  to  send  him  troopi^ 


296  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

and  provisions,  but  did  not  prove  successful.  When  death 
from  starvation  was  impending,  the  valiant  general  con-p 
eluded  to  surrender.  May  6,  1713,  it  was  agreed  that  Sten- 
bock  and  his  army  of  11,000  men  should  become  Danish 
prisoners,  but  that  they  should  be  exchanged  at  the  earliest 
opportunity.  King  Frederic  IV.  of  Denmark  dishonestly 
neglected  to  fulfil  this  agreement,  repeatedly  and  flatly 
refusing  to  exchange  any  of  the  prisoners.  The  hero  of 
the  victories  at  Helsingborg  and  Gadebusch  at  first  received 
a  tolerably  good  treatment  in  Danish  captivity,  which  later 
was  changed  in  a  horrible  manner.  After  years  of  cruel 
suffering,  he  died  in  a  miserable  dungeon,  in  1717,  one  year 
prior  to  the  death  of  Charles  XII.  This  great  descendant 
of  Eric  Stenbock  and  Magdalen  Sture  tried  to  kill  the  time 
of  his  captivity  by  carving  in  ivory,  some  articles  of  exquis- 
ite design  by  his  hand  still  being  preserved. 

At  the  surrender  of  Toenning,  Sweden  lost  her  last 
army  and  her  ablest  general.  Her  king  dwelt  among  the 
Turks  in  circumstances  fraught  with  increasing  dangers, 
and  her  enemies  on  every  side  stood  ready  for  attack,  the 
country  being  a  prey  to  discontent  and  despair.  Still  her 
measure  of  misery  and  contumely  was  not  filled. 

Charles  XII.  persevered  in  his  strange  sojourn  at  Bender, 
being  a  guest  who  caused  the  sultan  continual  worry 
through  his  great  political  influence.  The  king  was  re- 
solved to  leave  Turkey  only  in  one  manner,  and  that  was 
escorted  by  a  Turkish  force.  He  was  successful  in  persuad- 
ing the  sultan  to  declare  war  on  Russia  once  more,  but  Czar 
Peter  hastened  to  make  so  many  concessions  that  peace  was 
made  before  any  campaign  was  begun.  King  Frederic  of 
Prussia  offered  Charles  an  alliance  on  the  condition  that 
he  should  at  once  return  to  Sweden.     Charles  seemed  at 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  297 

last  inclined  to  do  so,  but  then  a  conspiracy  was  brought 
to  his  notice,  disclosing  a  plan  by  which  the  perfidious 
Turkish  princes  of  his  intended  escort  were  to  deliver  him 
into  the  hands  of  King  August  of  Poland.  King  Charles 
refused  to  leave  Poland,  and  the  conspirators  effected  an 
order  from  the  sultan  to  attack  Charles  with  an  army  of 
10,000  men,  and  bring  him,  dead  or  alive,  to  Adrianople. 
The  order  was  executed  February  11,  1713,  Charles  de- 
fending himself  with  his  few  hundred  Swedes  and  some 
Poles  of  his  escort  against  the  overwhelming  force  of  Turks 
and  Tartars.  The  house  of  the  king,  near  Bender,  had 
been  strongly  fortified  for  the  occasion.  When  the  trenches 
were  taken  most  of  his  men  surrendered,  but  Charles  re- 
mained with  fifty  Swedes  in  the  house,  which  was  built 
of  wood,  warding  off  the  attack  and  putting  the  enemy 
to  flight  with  a  heroism  vividly  recalling  the  tales  of  the 
ancient  Sagas.  The  Turks  returned  toward  evening  and 
ignited  the  building.  The  Swedes  valiantly  continued  their 
struggle,  fighting  with  their  swords  against  the  Turks,  sur- 
rounded by  heavy  fire  and  by  the  smoke  of  the  burning 
building.  The  king  at  last  was  forced  to  leave  the  house 
and  tried  to  make  his  way  to  the  neighboring  chancery 
building,  which  was  of  stone  and  better  fit  to  withstand 
an  attack.  Charles  stumbled  and  fell,  and  was  at  once 
made  prisoner,  together  with  his  followers.  This  peculiar 
incident,  which .  has  been  called  the  Kalabalik,  or  Popular 
Tumult,  of  Bender,  aroused  universal  surprise  and  dislike. 
Charles  was  conducted  to  a  Turkish  pasha,  who  treated  him 
with  respect.  He  was  under  supervision  first  at  the  town 
of  Demotika,  later  at  the  palace  of  Timurtasz,  both  in  the 
vicinity  of  Adrianople.  Charles  considered  it  incompatible 
with  his  royal  dignity  to  call  on  the  grand  vizier.     For  this 


298  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

reason  it  was  given  out  that  he  was  ill,  and  in  his  miracu- 
lous stubbornness  he  persevered  in  keeping  his  bed  for  a 
whole  year!  During  all  this  time,  Charles  followed  up  his 
policy  of  governing  Sweden  from  afar  with  absolute  despot- 
ism. He  prepared  new  rules  for  the  chancery,  attempting 
to  change  the  form  of  administration  from  one  of  faculties, 
or  colleges,  to  one  of  departments,  or  bureaus.  He  made 
negotiations  of  peace  in  the  same  spirit  as  of  yore,  viz., 
without  being  wilhng  to  make  any  concessions,  and  planned 
new  campaigns.  For  recreation  he  played  chess  and  lis- 
tened to  music. 

In  Sweden  the  peculiar  Turkish  adventures  of  Charles 
XII.  were  not  imderstood  or  appreciated,  and  the  country 
seemed  forsaken  by  all,  even  by  the  king,  who  by  many 
was  thought  to  be  insane.  The  state  council  saw  no  possi- 
bility of  maintaining  a  government  without  the  consent 
and  goodwill  of  the  people.  Plans  for  a  new  constitution, 
a  reduction  of  the  royal  power  and  a  peace  at  any  cost 
were  in  the  air.  Princess  Ulrica  Eleonore  was  called  as 
a  member  of  the  state  council  and  a  Kiksdag  was  convoked, 
to  meet  toward  the  end  of  1713.  The  Estates  declared  that 
they  were,  in  case  of  necessity,  ready  to  seek  peace  under 
the  auspices  of  the  princess  and  the  state  council,  and  were 
in  favor  of  appointing  the  princess  to  the  regency.  Arvid 
Horn,  the  leading  spirit  of  the  state  council,  used  the  utmost 
of  his  influence  in  keeping  the  Riksdag  from  the  revolu- 
tionary acts  which  would  be  involved  ui  making  Ulrica 
Eleonore  regent,  but  he  saw  to  it  that  the  declaration  of  the 
Riksdag,  of  intended  peace-making  through  the  princess 
and  state  council,  was  conmaunicated  to  the  king.  Hans 
Henric  von  Liewen,  one  of  the  state  councillors,  was 
selected  to  carry  this  communication  to  the  king,  together 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  299 

with  letters  from  the  queen-dowager  and  the  state 
council.  Count  Liewen  gave  a  full  and  true  account 
to  the  king,  telling  him  in  plain  words  that  if  he  did 
not  return  home  without  delay  his  kingdom  would  be 
lost  to  him. 

King  Charles  at  last  decided  to  return  to  his  country. 
He  sent  an  embassy  of  seventy-two  people  to  officially 
annoimce  his  departure  to  the  sultan  at  Constantinople, 
made  a  loan  of  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  and  left 
Demotika  with  a  large  escort.  In  "Wallachia  he  left  the 
Turks  behind,  and  continued  on  his  way  through  Hungary 
and  Germany,  followed  by  two  Swedish  officers.  The 
emperor  of  Germany,  who  was  desirous  of  winning  over 
the  Swedish  king  for  his  plans,  prepared  a  hospitable  recep- 
tion, but  Charles  passed  Vienna  incognito  as  Captain  Peter 
Frisk.  He  rode  on,  through  night  and  day,  taking  care 
of  his  own  horse  and  never  changing  his  clothes.  Charles 
arrived  at  the  gate  of  Stralsund,  in  Swedish  Pomerania, 
in  the  night  of  November  11,  1714,  accompanied  by  one 
officer.  In  a  fortnight  he  had,  on  horseback,  traversed  a 
stretch  of  1,300  miles. 

The  situation  at  the  arrival  of  Charles  XII.  in  Stralsund 
was  beset  with  new  dangers  and  complications.  Prussia 
had  ceased  to  be  friendly  and  was  planning  to  seize  the 
Swedish  possessions  in  Germany.  Hanover,  united  with 
England  under  the  same  ruler,  had  the  same  ambition. 
The  dilapidated  fortifications  of  Stralsund  were  attacked 
by  Saxons  and  Danes,  commanded  by  their  respective 
kings,  August  and  Frederic.  For  more  than  a  year, 
Charles,  with  admirable  heroism,  withstood  the  siege. 
Once,  while  the  king  was  dictating  a  letter  to  a  secretary, 
the  latter  sprang  to  his  feet  in  consternation,  a  bomb  hav- 


^HOO  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

ing  shattered  the  roof  of  the  building.  "The  bomb,  your 
majesty,  the  bomb!"  exclaimed  the  scribe.  Charles  an- 
swered: **What  connection  is  there  between  the  bomb  and 
my  letter?"  quietly  continuing  his  dictation.  The  king 
found  it  at  last  impossible  to  keep  up  the  defence  of  Stral- 
sund,  leaving  it  a  stormy  December  night,  and  arriving 
safely  in  the  town  of  Trelleborg,  on  the  southernmost  point 
of  Sweden,  December  15,  1715. 

What  a  different  country  that  Sweden  was  which 
Charles  XII.  left  in  August,  1699,  at  the  very  summit 
of  her  political  grandeur,  to  the  impoverished  and  suffering 
Sweden  in  which  he  had  now  landed  I  And  what  a  differ- 
ent man  he  had  himself  become  during  these  sixteen  years 
of  absence  I  Sweden  had  won  a  new  hero  king,  of  greater 
fame  than  any  of  his  predecessors  or  successors,  but  lost 
her  prosperity  for  the  time  being  and  her  political  grandeur 
forever.  The  people  received  the  king  with  demonstrations 
of  joy  and  with  reviving  hope  for  an  honorable  peace.  The 
state  council  and  the  intelligent  few  received  him  with 
badly  concealed  hopelessness  and  indifference.  They  knew 
that  although  the  young  ambitious  king  had  changed  to 
a  world-famous  hero,  prematurely  aged  in  victory  and 
defeat,  the  imyielding  stubbornness  and  the  never  satiated 
desire  for  glory  had  remained  unchanged  in  Charles  XII. 
Charles  was  met  by  a  message  from  the  dying  queen-dow- 
ager, his  grandmother,  with  an  ardent  prayer  for  peace. 
Charles  answered  to  hopes  and  prayers,  to  silent  indiffer- 
ence and  despair,  with  a  command  of  more  money  and  more 
troops!  He  wanted  peace,  but  as  he  spoke  in  the  same 
terms  as  when  he  was  the  victorious  commander  of  an 
apparently  invincible  army,  nobody  cared  to  consider  his 
demands  in  earnest.     The  absolute  power  reached  its  last 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  301 

stage  of  development,  a  military  despotism  which  had  no 
other  policy  than  war,  no  oth^  administration  than  the 
one  requisite  to  maintain  and  provide  the  requirements  of 
ware  The  state  council  fell  in  deepest  disgracep  snd  its 
functions  ceased,  in  1715. 

During  tho  last  years  of  his  reign,  Charles  XIIo  took  no 
advice  of  Swedish  men.  Foreign  adventurers  and  schem- 
ers wero  in  charge  of  the  affairs  of  state,  principal  among 
whom  was  Baron  George  Henric  Goertz.  This  man  was 
a  minister  of  state  of  the  young  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp, 
in  whose  service  he  remained,  and  in  whose  interests,  as  a 
successor  to  Charles  XII.  on  the  throno  of  Sweden,  he  zeal' 
ously  worked,  while  developing  into  the  all-powerful  min^ 
ister  of  the  Swedish  king.  Charles  granted  him  authority 
to  act  in  his  name  in  almost  every  branch  of  the  govern* 
ment,  interior  as  well  as  foreign.  Goertz  was  a  genius,  bnt 
utterly  reckless.  For  his  acts  the  king  was  responsible,  not 
he.  Goertz  was  a  foreigner  and  working  for  the  cause  ol 
a  foreign  master.  He  tried  to  obtain  loans  abroad,  made 
compulsory  loans  within  the  country,  placed  a  tax  on 
articles  of  luxury,  and  put  in  circulation  coins  of  copper 
which  were  a  kind  of  "promissory  notes,"  worthless  in  them- 
selves, but  each  representing  a  Swedish  dollar.  At  first 
these  * 'coins  of  need"  were  issued  to  the  amount  of  a  sensible 
sum,  but  were  soon  increased  in  number  at  the  command 
of  Charles  XIIo  himself,  so  that  they  represented  higher 
sums  than  the  crown  could  redeem,  and  thus  lost  their 
value.  The  people  refused  to  take  themj  while  the  prices 
of  everything  in  the  market  rose  to  an  astounding  height. 
The  government,  in  order  to  save  itself  from  this  difficulty, 
took  possession  of  all  coined  money  and  uncoined  silverp  and 
gave  the  "coins  of  need"  in  exchange,  perpetrating  several 


802  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

other  scandalous  acts  of  violence  against  the  rights  of  pri- 
vate property. 

The  situation  grew  almost  insupportable.  Commerce 
and  industry,  injured  by  the  war,  ceased  entirely  because 
nobody  was  inclined  to  sell,  only  to  receive  in  exchange 
worthless  coins.  Wars  and  hard  years  combined  in  creating 
misery  and  distress  everywhere.  The  peasants  were  reck- 
lessly treated,  and  a  disregard  for  moral  obligations  grew 
cut  of  the  bad  examples  set  by  the  government.  The 
students  and  scientists  had  in  great  numbers  been  carried 
away  by  the  bloody  wars,  and  the  interest  in  the  fields 
of  culture  was  slackened  by  the  power  of  financial  depres- 
sion. The  wealthy  and  well-to-do  saw  their  means  daily 
diminish,  and,  losing  their  interest  in  public  welfare^  they 
tried  to  save  the  remnants  of  their  own  property.  The 
members  of  the  state  council  were  threatened  by  investiga- 
tions which  Gcertz  and  his  friends  were  scheming  to  insti- 
tute against  them.  In  the  nobility,  the  plans  for  a  change 
of  the  constitution  matured,  the  leaders  in  this  movement 
being  Coimt  Per  Ribbing  and  the  old  Gyllencreutz,  who 
had  prophesied  the  outcome  of  an  absolute  monarch  ial 
government. 

Charles  XII.,  in  spite  of  his  all-absorbing  passion  for 
warj  did  not  lack  interest  for  the  pursuits  of  peace.  He 
encouraged  several  men  of  genius,  of  whom  two  were 
eminently  worthy  of  distinction;  viz..  Nicodemus  Tessin, 
Junior,  the  architect,  and  Christopher  Polhem,  the  en- 
gineerc 

Nicodemus  Tessin  was  born  in  Nykoeping  in  1654o  His 
father  and  namesake  belonged  to  an  old  Pomeranian  family, 
and  had  come  to  Sweden  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Chris- 
tine.    Nicodemus  Tessin,  Senior,  was  an  able  architect,  who 


HISTORY    OF  SWEDEN  303 

built  the  castle  of  Drottningholm  for  Queen-dowager  Hed- 
vig  Eleonore,  a  moderately  gifted  but  art-loving  woman. 
The  latter  gathered  around  herself  artists  and  architects 
at  her  castle  of  Drottningholmj  in  Lake  Mselar,  among 
whom  were  Ehrenstrahl,  a  famous  artist  of  German  birth, 
who  founded  the  first  school  of  Swedish  painters.  The 
younger  Tessin  belonged  to  this  circle  and  was,  in  their 
respective  times,  in  the  favor  of  Charles  XI.  and  Charles 
XII.,  acting  as  court  architect  to  both.  The  work  which 
won  for  him  an  immortal  fame  is  the  royal  palace  of  Stock- 
holm, an  architectural  creation  worthy  of  the  admiration 
of  all  Europe,  and,  in  Sweden,  standing  unsurpassed  to  this 
dayo  It  was  planned  and  commenced  by  Tessin,  but  com- 
pleted according  to  his  plans  a  hundred  years  after  his 
deatho  Charles  XI.  ordered  a  reconstruction  of  the  old 
castle,  which  enterprise  Tessin  undertook.  Shortly  after 
the  death  of  Charles  XI.,  both  the  old  and  the  recon° 
structed  parts  of  the  palace  were  burned,  and  the  body 
of  the  king  with  difficulty  saved  from  the  conflagration. 
Charles  XII.  ordered  Tessin  to  build  an  entirely  new 
palace.  The  work  was  commenced  in  1698,  but  was  grad- 
ually abandoned  during  the  war  times,  to  cease  shortly 
before  the  battle  of  Pultowa.  Charles  was  highly  inter- 
ested in  it  and  wrote  from  Turkey  to  Tessin  about  his 
views.  Tessin  intended  to  decorate  the  exterior  according 
to  the  taste  of  his  day,  but  Charles  raised  opposition,  find- 
ing the  severe  beauty  of  the  stern  yet  graceful  outlines  per= 
feet  in  themselves.  The  work  on  the  new  palace  was 
recommenced  after  the  death  of  Charles  XII.  King  Adol- 
phus  Frederic  was  the  first  who  took  up  his  residence  within 
its  walls.  Tessin  rose  high  on  the  social  ladder.  From 
Turkey,  the  king  made  him  a  count  and  chancellor  of  the 


504  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

University  of  Lund;  after  his  return  to  Sweden  he  ap- 
pointed him  marshal-colonel.  Tessin  stood  in  strong 
opposition  to  Baron  Gcertz,  and  after  the  death  of  King 
Charles  joined  the  leaders  of  the  revolutionary  nobles.  He 
was  of  universal  fame. 

Christopher  Polhem  was  the  first  of  great  Swedish  en- 
gineers and  inventors.  He  was  born  at  the  ancient  town 
of  Visby,  in  the  island  of  Gothland,  in  1661,  and  was  the 
son  of  a  merchant,  who  died  when  Christopher  was  a  child. 
When  only  twelve  years  of  age  he  had  to  make  his  own 
living.  As  secretary  to  a  widow  of  wealth,  he  early  devel- 
oped his  genius  as  a  mechanician,  building  his  own  shop 
of  carpentry,  sloyd,  etc.,  making  watches  and  devising 
smaller  inventions.  His  want  of  a  classical  education  was 
detrimental  to  him,  and  he  commenced,  when  twenty-four 
years  of  age,  to  study  Latin  with  various  ministers  in  the 
country,  in  exchange  for  works  of  his  genius  and  handi- 
craft. At  last  he  was  able  to  enter  the  University  of  Up- 
sala  by  means  of  reconmiendations  from  his  last  teacher. 
Soon  after  his  arrival  he  created  considerable  attention  and 
admiration  by  a  proof  of  his  ingenuity.  Behind  the  high 
altar  in  the  Upsala  Cathedral  there  was  a  clock  of  the  finest 
workmanship,  devised  in  mediaeval  times  by  a  monk  of  the 
monastery  of  Vadstena.  It  was  out  of  order,  and  not  for 
a  hundred  years  had  anybody  attempted  to  set  it  right. 
Polhem  undertook  to  reconstruct  the  whole  work,  connect- 
ing with  the  main  mechanism  all  the  hands  which  pointed 
out  the  hours  of  the  day,  the  eclipses  of  the  moon  and  the 
motions  of  the  "ruling"  planets,  according  to  the  system 
of  the  astrologers.  Polhem  succeeded  in  his  task,  and  was 
allowed  to  test  his  invention  of  automatic  haulers  of  ore  in 
the  mines.     The  college  of  mining,  before  which  the  inven- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  305 

tion  was  successfully  demonstrated,  accepted  it,  and  Charles 
XIo  appointed  Polhem  a  mining  engineero  In  1694,  Polhem 
made  an  extensive  journey  through  England  and  the  Con- 
tinento  In  Paris  he  learned  that  several  mathematicians 
were  in  vain  endeavoring  to  construct  a  clock  which  would 
simultaneously  show  the  time  of  the  day  in  various  coun- 
tries and  strike  the  hours  at  the  same  timOo  Polhem  an° 
nounced  through  the  Swedish  ambassador  in  Paris  that  he 
was  willing  to  solve  the  problem.  He  constructed  a  model 
which  gave  universal  satisfaction.  Louis  XIVo  had  a  clock 
made  after  this  model  and  gave  it  as  a  gift  of  honor  to  the 
Turkish  sultan.  Upon  his  return  he  proposed  the  found- 
ing of  a  lahoratorium  mechanicum^  which  in  several  re- 
spects served  as  a  pattern  for  the  later  technological  insti- 
tutes of  Stockholm  and  Gothenburgc  The  youthful  Charles 
XII.  embraced  the  idea  with  interestp  but  the  promising 
institution  came  to  a  standstill  during  the  warSo  Among 
Polhem's  more  remarkable  inventions  was  one  for  the  lead- 
ing of  water-power,  to  be  used  at  considerable  distanceso 
Charles  XII.  said  that  a  man  like  Polhem  was  not  to  be  had 
for  several  centuries,  and  that  for  this  reason  he  ought  to  be 
made  useful  as  long  as  he  lived.  A  task  of  gigantic  pro- 
portions was  intrusted  to  him — the  construction  of  a  dock 
for  the  navy  yards  at  Carlskronao  The  great  engineer  filled 
it  in  an  admirable  wayj  and  was  appointed  councillor  of 
commerce  and  ennobled  under  the  name  of  Polhem,  his 
original  name  having  been  Polhammar,  which  to  modem 
ears  sounds  just  as  fine  and  a  good  deal  more  suggestiva 
Another  gigantic  task  worthy  of  the  genius  of  Polhem 
was  the  construction  of  a  navigable  route  from  the  North 
Sea  across  the  great  inland  seas  of  Sweden  to  the  BaltiCy  but 
he  was  not  allowed  to  finish  it.     Charles  XII.  intrusted  the 


306  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

work  to  Polhem,  who  was  to  have  it  ready  in  five  years. 
In  1718,  Polhem  commenced  by  forming  an  immense  sluice, 
by  means  of  explosions  in  the  rock  at  TroUhetta.  The  great 
waterfalls  of  said  place  were  to  be  avoided  and  the  work 
of  completing  the  sluice  was  begun,  when  it  was  all  de- 
stroyed by  unknown  enemies,  who  dropped  beams  and 
planks  in  the  river  above,  which  carried  away  the  dam. 
The  death  of  King  Charies  and  the  impoverished  condition 
of  the  country  made  it  impossible  to  continue  the  work  on 
the  great  canal  system,  which  had  to  wait  for  more  than 
a  century  for  its  ultimate  completion.  With  the  death  of 
Charles  XII.  the  era  of  ambitious  enterprises  came  to  an 
end;  but  Polhem  was  employed  in  various  works  of  me- 
chanic improvements  in  the  interest  of  agriculture,  industry 
and  manufactures.  Czar  Peter  of  Russia,  King  George 
I.  of  England,  and  several  other  monarchs  made  brilliant 
offers  in  order  to  win  Polhem  for  their  countries.  He  ex- 
ecuted several  works  and  inventions  abroad,  but  loved  his 
own  country  too  much  to  leave  it.  Polhem  exerted  a  great 
influence  in  the  interest  of  his  science,  both  by  instruction 
and  by  the  publication  of  technical  works.  Active  to  the 
last,  he  died  in  1751.  Polhem  was  a  man  of  a  harmonious 
endowment,  amiable  and  dignified,  and  preserved  his  plain 
mode  of  living  throughout  his  brilliant  career. 

GkBrtz  led  with  superior  skill  the  negotiations  for  peace, 
while  the  impoverished  country  suffered  untold  miseries  as 
a  consequence  of  his  unscrupulous  financial  schemes.  He 
tried  to  benefit  by  the  sudden  but  lasting  enmity  between 
Czar  Peter  and  George  I.,  desiring  to  gain  the  support  of 
either  against  the  other.  The  deliberations  were  held  in  the 
archipelago  of  Aland,  with  Goertz  as  the  representative 
of  the  Swedish  government.     Czar  Peter  wanted  to  keep 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  307 

Ingermanland,  Esthonia  and  Livonia,  but  was  ready  t6 
cede  Finland,  which  country  he  occupied,  and  to  assist 
King  Charles  with  troops  in  an  attack  on  Denmark.  Nor- 
way was  to  be  the  compensation  for  the  lost  Baltic  provinces, 
and  the  attack  on  Denmark  was  to  be  made  from  Germany. 
Charles  XII«  had  no  confidence  in  the  czar  as  an  ally  and 
had  commenced  the  conquest  of  Norway  directly  and  with- 
out his  aid.  No  decision  was  reached  in  the  negotiations 
with  England. 

In  February,  1716,  Charles  XII.,  from  Bohuslsen  and 
Vermland,  made  an  invasion  into  Norwayj  penetrating  over 
the  Glom  River  to  Christiania.  He  captured  the  capital, 
where  he  held  his  headquarters  for  several  weeks,  but  was 
not  able  to  take  the  fortress  of  Akershus,  which,  with  its 
artillery,  commanded  the  city.  The  Swedish  army,  10,000 
strong,  suffered  a  great  deal  from  want  of  provisions  and 
through  a  guerilla  war,  skilfully  conducted  by  the  Norwe- 
gians. Charles  was  in  danger  of  being  surrounded  by  the 
enemy,  and  with  difficulty  retreated  to  Sweden,  over  the 
Strait  of  Svinesund,  The  dangers  were  increased  by  the 
Norwegian  naval  hero,  Peter  Tordenskiold,  who,  with  some 
Danish  ships  under  his  command,  had  destroyed  a  flotilla 
of  Swedish  transport  vessels.  An  invasion  into  Scania  by 
Denmark  and  her  allies  was  planned  for  the  summer,  but 
did  not  materialize.  King  Charles  took  up  his  headquarters 
at  Lund. 

The  war  offered  no  aspect  of  interest  during  the  year 
1717,  except  some  unsuccessful  attempts  made  by  Torden- 
skiold to  capture  the  towns  of  Stroemstad  and  Gothen- 
burg. Charles  prepared  another  attack  on  Norway,  and, 
by  draining  the  last  resources  of  his  country,  managed 
to  equip  an  army  of   60,000  men.      In   August,    1718,   a 


308  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

emaller  army,  tinder  «he  command  of  Charles  Gustavus 
Armfeltj  was  sent  through  Jemtland  over  the  mountains 
into  the  diocese  of  Drontheimo  King  Charles,  with  an 
army  of  30,000  men,  invaded  Norway  from  BohuslsBn,  Dal 
and  Vermland,  and  took  in  possession  the  country  east  of 
the  Glom  River.  Within  a  few  days  the  king  laid  siege 
to  the  fortress  of  Fredericsten,  close  by  the  town  of  Fred° 
ricshall.  November  27th  the  fort  of  Qyldenloeve  was  caj^ 
tured,  and  the  Swedes  moved  their  trenches  ever  closer 
to  the  fortress,  which  seemed  doomed  to  surrendero  In  the 
evening  of  November  30th  the  king  was  seen  in  one  of 
the  trenches  watching  the  work  of  his  soldiers,  and  leaning 
against  the  rampart.  He  remained  there  a  long  time,  not 
heeding  the  appeals  oi  his  officers,  who  grew  uneasy  on 
account  of  the  apparent  danger  to  his  person.  Suddenly 
his  head  sank  down  on  his  breast.  A  bullet  from  the  for- 
tress had  reached  him,  penetrating  his  temples  and  causing 
instant  death.  He  met  death  in  the  manner  he  most  de- 
sired it,  although  not  while  engaged  in  battle, 

Charles  XII.  was  of  an  enigmatic  character,  which  at- 
tracts, through  its  strength  and  superiority  over  his  con- 
temporaries, but  which  is  repulsive  through  its  tenacity, 
unyielding  sternness  and  inaccessibility  to  reason  or  per- 
suasiouc  His  moral  greatness  has  won  admiratiouo  It  had 
its  limitations,  but  was  superior  to  the  standards  of  his  time. 
His  ideals  were  pure  and  lofty,  but,  through  lack  of  contact 
with  the  realities  and  facts  of  life,  only  assumed  a  tragic 
grandeur,  without  proving  beneficent  to  mankind.  His 
faults  were  such  that  his  education  and  experience  as  an 
absolute  monarch  aggravated  them.  Charles  XII.  was  the 
most  remarkable  man  of  his  age  and  one  of  the  greatest 
soldiers  that  ever  lived.     He  was  also  a  great  general, 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  309 

although  the  proper  balance  between  the  soidier  and  the 
field  marshal,  perhaps,  was  to  some  extent  lackingo  The 
influence  of  his  personality  and  example  had  a  miraculous 
effect  upon  his  soldiers.  He  suffered  his  one  great  defeat 
in  open  battle  when  wounded,  suffering,  and  not  able  to 
exert  his  usual  influence  to  its  full  extent. 

Charles  XIIo  has  been  idolized  by  his  countrymen  of  all 
ages,  who  in  him  have  recognized  an  impersonation  of 
all  their  chief  national  virtues,  with  a  few  of  their  national 
faults,  enlarged  into  the  image  of  a  patriotic  hero  of  almost 
supernatural  grandeur.  The  Swedish  people  were  forced 
to  accept  absolute  power  as  a  salvation  from  the  impending 
thraldom  of  oligarchyo  In  Charles  XIIo  it  saw  to  what 
a  climax  of  abuse  this  power  could  attain,  even  in  hands 
which  were  deemed  righteous  and  free  from  stainSc  "With 
Charles  XII.  the  political  grandeur  and  the  absolute  mon° 
archy  of  Sweden  came  to  an  end,  although  attempts  to 
restore  both  were  to  be  made,  A  new  phase  of  her  develop- 
ment, with  new  improvements  and  new  evils,  commenced 
with  the  reign  of  Ulrica  Eleonore. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
Period  of  Liberty — The  Aristocratic  Republic 

ULRICA  ELEONORE  succeeded  her  brother  Charles 
XIIo  as  the  sovereign  of  Sweden.  She  was  pro- 
claiined  queen  by  birthright,  and  called  the  Riks- 
dag, willing  to  cede  the  absolute  power.  "When  the  Riks- 
dag convened  a  disagreeable  surprise  met  her.  The  Estates 
refused  to  acknowledge  her  right  to  the  crown,  stating  that 
both  she  and  her  older  sister  had  deprived  themselves  of 
their  rights  of  succession  by  marrying  without  the  consent 
of  the  Estates  of  the  Riksdag.  Princess  Hedvig  Sophie  waa 
dead,  but  her  son,  the  young  Duke  Charles  Frederic  of 
Holstein  was  in  Sweden,  ready  to  claim  the  thronOo  Ulrica 
Eleonore  was  compelled  to  yield  gracefully.  She  sent  a 
note  to  the  Riksdag  disclaiming  her  hereditary  right,  but 
declaring  herself  willing  to  accept  the  crown,  with  restric- 
tion of  the  absolute  powero  She  was  at  once  elected  queen 
by  the  Riksdag  of  1719,  which  then  proceeded  to  pass  a  new 
constitution  0  Such  a  constitution  had  been  formulated  in 
advance  by  a  new  party,  chiefly  consisting  of  nobles,  who 
aimed  at  introducing  a  royal  government,  restricted  in  its 
power  by  the  state  council  and  the  Riksdag.  They  were 
successful  in  their  efforts,  but  unfortunately  lost  their  ablest 
leaders  at  the  start.  Per  Ribbing  dying  soon  after  the  first 

Riksdag,  and  Arvid  Horn  retiring  from  the  government 
(310) 


HISTORY   OF    SWEDEN  311 

and  council  on  account  of  a  conflict  with  the  queen.  Thus 
the  new  government  did  not  open  up  under  favorable  aus- 
pices. Baron  von  Goertz  was  captured  and  put  to  death 
for  high  treason  without  being  granted  the  privilege  of  an 
appropriate  legal  defence.  The  queen  overstepped  her  limit 
of  power  in  being  the  active  force  in  this  illegal  execution, 
anxious  to  rid  herself  of  Goertz  because  he  was  the  ablest 
man  among  the  supporters  of  Duke  Charles  Frederic  of 
Holstein.  The  duke  gave  up  his  chances  and  left  for 
Russia,  where  he  married  a  daughter  of  Czar  Peter.  The 
arrangements  made  to  establish  order  in  financial  matters 
were  not  satisfactory.  The  management  of  the  war  with 
Denmark  was  miserable.  The  army  was  recalled  from 
Norway  and  little  done  to  protect  the  coast  from  attacks 
by  the  Danish  fleet  under  Admiral  Tordenskiold.  This 
valiant  naval  hero,  of  Norwegian  birth,  who,  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  XII.,  had  made  unsuccessful  attacks  on 
Stroemstad  and  Gothenburg,  through  cunning  captured  the 
strong  fortress  of  Carlsten,  but  was  unable  to  take  New 
Elfsborg.  Danckwardt,  the  commander  who  surrendered 
Carlsten,  was  executed  by  the  Swedish  government.  The 
Swedish  army  of  6,000  men,  which  had  entered  the  district 
of  Dronthiem  by  the  command  of  Charles  XII.,  perished 
from  hunger  and  cold  when  returning  through  the  moun- 
tains of  Jemtland.  Only  a  few  hundred  survived  to  tell 
the  terrible  tale.  The  Russians  sent  a  fleet  to  the  Swedish 
shores  with  40,000  men,  and  burned,  in  two  expeditions, 
twelve  Swedish  towns  in  the  middle  and  northern  parts 
of  the  country.  They  avoided  open  battle,  and  when  land- 
ing in  great  numbers  were  effectively  repulsed. 

Under  such  conditions  Sweden  was  anxious  for  peace. 
In  compensation  for  various  sums  of  money,  Bremen  and 


3W  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

Verden  were  ceded  to  Hanover  in  1719,  Pomeraniaj  south 
of  the  river  Peene,  with  Stettin,  Usedom  and  WoUin  to 
Prussia,  in  1720,  and  Ingermanland,  Esthonia,  Livonia, 
with  Viborg  and  Kexholm,  and  surrounding  Finnish  ter- 
ritory, to  Russia,  in  1721.  Denmark  had  to  give  up  all 
territory  captured  from  Sweden^  but  received  a  sum  of 
money  in  exchange  for  Carlsten,  in  1720.  Thus  the  Baltic 
empire  of  Sweden  was  swept  away.  It  had  been  of  impor- 
tance during  the  time  of  the  German  war  and  for  the 
shielding  of  new  conquests  in  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula 
itself o  Now  its  loss  was  a  gain  for  Sweden,  as  it  allowed 
her  to  concentrate  her  attention  upon  the  interior  develop- 
ment of  the  country. 

The  tendency  of  Ulrica  Eleonore  to  exert  more  power 
than  was  within  her  authority  had  created  dissatisfaction, 
and  when  she  commenced  an  agitation  to  have  her  consort, 
Prince  Frederic  of  Hesse,  share  the  throne  with  her,  the 
crown  was  granted  him  only  upon  her  own  resignation  from 
the  government. 

Frederic  I,  was  crowned  in  1720  and  Ulrica  Eleonore 
retired  from  the  government,  Frederic  left  the  Reformed 
and  entered  the  Lutheran  Churcho  The  crown  was  to  be 
inherited  by  his  male  issues  only,  in  the  union  with  Ulrica 
Eleonore.  He  showed  a  tendency  for  mixing  in  the  affairs 
of  state  to  further  his  own  interests,  but  soon  gave  in  to 
his  easy-tempered,  pleasure-loving  nature,  occupying  him- 
self exclusively  with  his  hunts  and  his  mistresses. 

The  real  ruler  of  Sweden,  during  the  first  two  decades 
of  Frederic's  reign,  was  Arvid  Horn,  one  of  the  greatest 
of  Swedish  statesmen.  His  was  not  the  work  of  building 
up  the  government  of  a  strong  and  influential  nation,  like 
that  of  Oxenstiema  or  Gyllenstiema,  nor  were  his  their 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  313 

grand,  far-reaching  views.  But  his  mission  was  to  raise 
from  the  dust  his  bleeding,  downtrodden  country^  and  to 
reinstall  it  in  the  honor  and  respectj  not  only  of  itself  but 
of  the  world.  Count  Arvid  Bernhard  Horn  was  an  oppor- 
tunist, but  one  of  the  noblest  kind,  who  by  means  of  peace 
found  the  only  way  in  which  to  protect  and  further  the 
financial  and  cultural  development  of  Sweden  =  He  was 
an  able  soldier  and  a  skilled  diplomatistc  The  son  of  an 
illustrious  but  poor  family^  of  the  Finnish  nobility,  he  en- 
tered the  military  service  after  a  university  course  at  Aboo 
He  served  in  foreign  armies,  but  was  with  Charles  XIIo 
in  Stockholm  as  the  best  companion  of  his  youthc  As  the 
commander  of  the  royal  body-guard  he  took  an  honorable 
part  in  the  early  victories  of  Charles  XIIo,  later  being 
chosen  to  fulfil  the  delicate  task  of  making  the  Polish 
nobles  elect  Stanislav  king,  in  which  he  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful. After  a  short  captivity  he  was  released  and  re- 
turned to  Sweden,  where  he  became  a  member  of  the  state 
council  and  president  of  the  state  chanceryo  In  this  posi- 
tion he  repeatedly  sent  letters  to  Charles  XIIo,  in  which 
he  described  the  distress  of  the  country^  in  eloquent  words 
pleading  its  need  of  peacOo  Upon  his  return  Charles  XIIo 
removed  him  from  office  with  the  other  councillors,  although 
he  was  the  one  who  had  saved  the  tottering  throne  for  the 
king.  Of  this  Ulrica  Eleonore  was  aware  and  was  glad  to 
accept  his  resignation;  when  reinstated  in  his  position  he 
found  that  he  could  not  preserve  it  with  dignity  in  the  face 
of  the  irregularities  committed  by  the  queen.  Count  Horn 
was  responsible  for  the  exclusion  of  Ulrica  Eleonore  from  the 
government  at  King  Frederic's  ascendency 5  but  the  latter 
was  forced  to  accept  Horn  in  his  former  position  as  the  con= 
trolling  power  of  the  government.     "With  due  reason^  the 

XX 14 


814  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

peaceful  and  honorable  decades  of  Frederic's  reign  have 
been  named  the  *' Period  ot  Arvid  Horn." 

The  new  form  of  government  introduced  by  Ribbing, 
Horn  and  others  was  nothing  else  than  that  of  an  aristo- 
cratic republiCc  The  rights  of  the  monarch,  reduced  in 
1719,  were  still  further  reduced  in  1720o  He  had  two  votes 
in  the  state  council  and  a  deciding  vote  in  deadlock,  but 
besides  the  authority  to  appoint  councillors  from  the  candi- 
dates nominated  by  the  Riksdag,  and  to  appoint  all  higher 
officials,  no  other  rights.  The  government  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  state  council,  consisting  of  sixteen  members. 
The  Riksdag  decided  all  questions  of  taxes  and  legislation, 
and  settled  issues  of  peace  and  war.  Each  of  the  four 
Estates  was  represented  in  the  committees,  except  in  the 
"secret  committee,^*  for  international  afiPairs,  to  which  no 
yeoman  ^ould  be  choseuc  Each  Estate  had  its  speakero 
The  president  of  the  chancery  was  the  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  and  consulted  the  secret  committee  on  important 
questions,  being  the  only  head  of  a  department  who  was 
allowed  as  a  member  of  the  state  council.  The  nobility 
held  the  balance  of  power,  much  to  the  opposition  of  the 
lower  Estates,  who  tried,  by  repeated  agitatiouj  to  invest 
the  king  with  the  authority  held  by  him  before  the  days 
of  absolute  power.  The  nobility  had  done  away  with  its 
three  classes,  and^  with  these  abandonedj  it  was  the  ma- 
jority, viz.,  the  lower  nobility,  who  were  the  governing  class. 
The  aristocracy  tried  its  best  to  regain  the  privileges  en- 
Joyed  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Christine  and  Charles  X., 
but  Horn  forced  it  to  be  satisfied  with  those  granted  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  power  of  the  higher  nobility  was 
forever  crushed  by  the  loss  of  their  immense  possessions. 
The  friction  oexween  the  nobility  and  the  lower  Estates  of 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  815 

the  Riksdag  was  constant,  Horn  siding  with  the  formers  but 
keeping  them  all  in  check. 

Arvid  Horn  led  with  superior  skill  and  gentleness  the 
management  of  foreign  affairSo  All  influences  from  the 
powers  and  from  the  restless  nobles  to  involve  Sweden  in 
a  conflict  of  war  were  unsuccessful.,  A  treaty  was  never  en- 
tered into  with  any  one  power  without  another  one  formed 
with  a  power  of  the  opposite  continental  party  to  counter- 
balance it.  Thus  England,  France  and  Russia  were  unable 
to  make  Sweden  an  obedient  ally,  Horn  upholding  her 
independence,  maintaining  peace  and  inspiring  respecto 
Utterly  refusing  to  accept  the  bribes  which  were  freely 
offered  and  considered  the  indispensable  means  of  obtaining 
diplomatic  influence  in  that  day,  Horn  himself  distributed 
bribes  to  gain  his  patriotic  purposeSo  Horn's  great  mistake 
was  to  refer  the  decision  of  foreign  affairs  in  which  he  was 
opposed  by  members  of  the  state  council  to  the  Riksdag  and 
its  secret  committee.  The  latter  commenced  to  act  inde- 
pendently in  important  foreign  matters.  By  signing  an 
agreement  with  France,  through  which  Sweden  lost  its 
former  privilege  of  an  independent  policy,  the  committee 
ultimately  caused  his  downfall,  in  1738.  Arvid  Horn  then 
retired,  at  the  age  of  seventy -two,  and  died  a  few  years 
later. 

During  Horn's  peaceful  administration  the  financial  con- 
ditions improved,  the  state  debt  was  reduced  and  the  peace- 
ful trades  and  industries  were  furthered.  The  great  deed 
accomplished  was  the  completion  of  a  new  state  law  which 
was  published  in  1734  and  is  in  force  to  this  very  dayo 
Arvid  Horn  was  a  perfect  type  of  the  great  Carolin  era,  of 
pure  and  severe  morals  and  modest  requirementSo  In  a  day 
of  increasing  scepticism  and  levity,  he  ostentatiously  pre- 


516  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

served  the  rigid  religious  practices  of  his  youth.  He 
showed  unreserved  indignation  at  the  unworthy  and  im- 
moral conduct  of  the  king,  for  which  reason  strained  rela- 
tions existed  between  them.  Count  Horn  was  of  impressive 
form  and  carriage,  controlling  the  quick  temper  of  the  war- 
rior beneath  the  smooth  and  dignified  bearing  of  the  states- 
man. 

The  decades  which  followed  upon  the  fall  of  Arvid 
Horn  were  stormy  ones  and  full  of  miseries.  The  friends 
of  peace  were  called  Caps  and  the  warlike  party  Hats. 
The  latter,  now  in  power,  commenced  a  war  against  Russia, 
which  turned  out  badly,  the  Swedes  being  defeated  at  Vil- 
manstrand,  in  1741,  and  at  Helsingfors,  in  1742.  The  gov- 
ernment and  secret  committee  felt  ashamed  of  their  work 
and  had  the  poor  generals^  Charles  Emil  Lewenhaupt  and 
Buddenbrock,  executed  for  their  lack  of  martial  skill  and 
good  fortune.  Peace  was  made  with  Russia  in  1743,  the 
towns  of  Fredericshamn,  Vilmanstrand  and  Nyslott,  in 
Finland,  being  ceded  by  SwedeUj  and  the  river  Kymene 
made  the  boundary  Une. 

Next  the  Hats  had  to  face  a  rebelliouc  In  order  to 
please  Elizabeth  of  Russia,  Czar  Peter's  daughter,  they 
had  selected  Charles  Peter  Ulric,  her  nephew  and  the  son 
of  the  duke  of  Holstein,  as  heir-apparent  to  the  Swedish 
throne,  to  which  he  was  the  nearest  in  right,  Ulrica  Eleo- 
nore  dying  without  issue,  in  1741,  But  when  chosen  as 
Elizabeth's  successor  in  Russia,  the  Hats  selected  Adolphus 
Frederic,  prince  bishop  of  Lubeck,  who  on  his  mother's  side 
was  a  descendant  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  This  caused 
popular  discontent,  the  people,  forgetful  of  past  enmities, 
desiring  to  make  Crown  Prince  Frederic  of  Denmark  heir- 
apparent.     The  peasants  at  the  Riksdag  of  1742  proclaimed 


HISTORY   OF  SWEDBNT  317 

loudly  their  desire  of  a  personal  union  with  Denmark-Nor- 
way, which  would  establish  Scandinavia  as  one  solid  power 
against  Russia.  The  peasants  of  Helsingland  and  Dale- 
carlia  revolted.  They  gathered,  and  marching  down  to 
Stockholm,  placed  the  government  in  a  dangerous  posi- 
tion by  demanding  the  election  of  Crown  Prince  Fred- 
eric of  Denmark  and  the  execution  of  the  two  imprisoned 
generals.  In  that  very  moment  peace  was  obtained  with 
Russia,  and  the  government  persuaded  the  leaders  of  the 
rebellion,  who  had  obtained  admission  to  the  Riksdag,  that 
Adolphus  Frederic  must  be  chosen,  since  it  was  a  part  of 
the  treaty  of  peace.  Later  the  rebels,  3,500  in  number, 
were  forced  to  surrender.  Their  principal  leader  was 
executed. 

The  Hats  were  at  first  led  by  Count  Gyllenborg,  who 
was  succeeded  by  the  brilliant  Count  Charles  Gustavus 
Tessin,  a  son  of  the  great  architect,  Nicodemus  Tessin  the 
Younger.  Although  not  a  statesman  of  any  higher  ability, 
Charles  Gustavus  Tessin  was  able  to  shake  the  oppressive 
influence  of  Russia.  He  was  assisted  by  Prince  Adolphus 
Frederic,  who  said  he  would  rather  resign  than  be  a  Rus- 
sian vassal.  A  war  seemed  imminent,  but  was  averted, 
Finland  in  the  meantime  being  effectively  fortified.  The 
unconquerable  fortress  of  Sveaborg  was  built  near  Helsing- 
fors,  and  was  the  creation  of  Augustinus  Ehrensverd.  The 
Hats  were  eager  in  their  attempts  to  encourage  industry 
and  manufacture,  but  did  so  at  the  expense  of  agriculture, 
and  placed  immense  taxes  on  imported  goods.  A  pioneer 
of  industry  was  John  Alstroemer,  who,  in  his  town  of 
Alingsos,  built  factories  of  various  kinds.  King  Frederic 
died  in  1751. 

Adolphus  Frederic  was  a  good-natured  and  gentle  man. 


818  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

He  was  not  averse  to  an  increased  royal  authority,  but  was 
not  energetic  enough  to  exert  a  controlling  influence  or  to 
push  his  claims.  His  consort  was  the  ambitious  and  bril- 
liantly gifted  Louise  Ulrica,  the  sister  of  Frederic  the  Great 
of  Prussia.  She  tried  to  inspire  the  king  to  action.  Con- 
tinually occupied  by  ambitious  schemes,  she  spoiled  them 
herself,  through  lack  of  caution  and  stability.  As  crown 
princess,  she  stood  close  to  Count  Tessin,  whom  she  hoped 
to  win  over  for  her  plans.  They  devised  the  institution  of 
the  knightly  orders  of  the  Seraphim,  the  Sword  and  the 
North  Star,  the  credit  of  their  introduction  being  given  to 
King  Frederic  I.  Adolphus  Frederic  was  forced  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  same  minimum  of  royal  privileges  as  those 
enjoyed  by  Frederic  I.  At  court  a  party  was  formed 
which  supported  the  king,  who  soon  commenced  to  oppose 
the  state  council.  In  1755  this  went  so  far  that  he  refused 
to  sign  a  document  from  the  council.  The  case  was 
brought  before  the  Riksdag,  where,  in  spite  of  strong  opposi- 
tion from  the  peasants,  a  resolution  was  passed  indorsing 
the  action  of  the  state  council.  Count  Tessin,  in  friction 
with  the  court,  resigned  from  all  his  positions.  The  Riks- 
dag tried  to  reinstall  him  as  governor  of  the  royal  princes, 
but  gave  in  upon  the  request  of  Tessin.  The  Riksdag  went 
to  the  extreme  of  having  a  stamp  made  of  the  king's  signa- 
ture, to  use  in  cases  where  he  refused  to  sign,  and  also  took 
upon  itself  to  engage  and  dismiss  teachers  for  the  royal 
princes.  At  court  indignation  rose  high,  and  a  conspiracy 
was  formed  to  take  possession  of  the  capital,  with  the  state 
council  and  the  speakers  of  the  four  Estates,  in  order  to 
bring  about  a  revolution  with  increased  power  for  the  king. 
The  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  Count  Eric  Brahe, 
Count  Jacob  Horn  and  six  others  of  its  leaders  executed. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  319 

A  new  humiliation  to  the  court  was  Sweden's  alliance 
with  Austria,  Russia  and  France  against  Frederic  the  Great 
of  Prussia.  The  plans  laid  out  by  the  Swedes  were  as 
elaborate  as  those  for  the  Russian  war.  But  on  account 
of  poor  equipment  and  repeated  change  of  commanders 
nothing  effective  was  done.  When  peace  was  made  at 
Hamburg,  in  1762,  Sweden  neither  lost  nor  gained  any- 
thing. The  Swedes  had  fought  no  battles,  and  Frederic 
the  Great  said  he  would  call  the  Swedish  invasion  of  Pom- 
erania  a  private  fight  at  the  frontier. 

The  great  expense  of  the  profitless  war  gave  the  Caps 
an  occasion  to  gain  in  influence,  and  at  the  Riksdag  of 
1765  they  overthrew  the  power  of  the  Hats,  in  their  turn 
summarily  dismissing  the  councillors  of  their  opponents. 
They  introduced  perfect  liberty  of  the  press  in  1766,  but 
went  too  far  in  their  policy  of  economy,  dangerously  injur- 
ing the  new  industries  by  the  withdrawal  of  loans  and  sub- 
sidies. The  expensive  factories  came  to  a  standstill  and 
skilled  workingmen  emigrated.  Popular  opinion  turned 
against  these  repeated  changes  and  the  endless  strife  of 
the  parties,  and  felt  inclined  to  criticise  a  Riksdag  which 
had  attained  such  power  without  giving  a  prosperous  and 
secure  administration  in  return.  Foreign  powers,  encour- 
aged by  the  court,  tried  to  gain  adherents  of  their  various 
policies  by  bribes  to  councillors  and  members  of  the  Riks- 
dag, thus  demoralizing  state  politics. 

The  king  received  a  valuable  supporter  in  the  crown 
prince  Gustavus,  who  in  1767  became  of  age.  He  prevailed 
upon  the  king  to  resign  when  the  state  council  refused  to  call 
an  extraordinary  Riksdag  for  the  granting  of  added  royal 
authority.  The  king  did  so,  and  the  country  was  without 
a  monarch  for  six  days  (December  15-21,  1768).    The  crown 


yWO  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

prince  notified  the  presidents  of  the  different  administrative 
offices  in  Stockholm  that  his  father  had  ceased  to  reign. 
The  state  council  persisted ;  but  had  to  give  in,  when  the 
colonels  of  the  regiments  reported  that  they  could  no  longer 
answer  for  their  troops,  since  also  the  paymaster's  office  was 
closed.  The  Riksdag  convened  in  Norrkceping  in  1769. 
The  Cape  suffered  defeat  in  spite  of  strenuous  efforts  made 
for  their  preservation  by  the  secret  agents  of  the  powers, 
anxious  to  see  the  anarchic  condition  of  the  government 
continue.  But  the  court  party  failed  in  the  exertions  to 
have  the  royal  privileges  augmented.  The  intrigues  of  the 
foreign  powers  continued,  and  the  crown  prince  left  for 
France  to  insure  her  support  in  case  of  war.  While  the 
Hats  were  once  more  in  power,  Adolphus  Frederic  died 
suddenly  in  February,  1771. 

Gustavus  was  to  put  an  end  to  the  party  strife  of  the 
** Period  of  Liberty,"  as  it  has  been  called.  His  own  reign 
belongs  properly  to  it,  for  he  reaped  the  benefit  of  the  seed 
it  had  been  sowing.  The  Period  of  Liberty,  with  all  its 
faults,  forms  an  important  chain  in  the  cultural  and  polit- 
ical development  of  Sweden.  Its  form  of  government 
made  necessary  a  varied  and  active  part  in  public  affairs, 
educating  all  classes  of  officials  to  a  high  degree  of  effi- 
ciency and  the  people  at  large  to  self-government.  The 
Riksdag,  through  parliamentary  activity  and  importance, 
developed  an  authority  which,  although  too  composite 
to  govern  itself,  was  enabled  to  act  as  a  shield  of  steel 
against  all  abuse  of  the  executive  power.  The  national  life 
never  gathered  a  richer  harvest  of  men  of  genius  who 
worked  for  the  prepress  of  their  country  and  for  that  of 
the  world.  The  heroism  of  the  Swedish  people  during  the 
preceding  period  of    suffering   and   distress  bore  fruit  in 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  321 

Btten  like  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  the  inventor,  naturalist, 
philosopher  and  founder  of  a  new  religion;  Charles 
LinnsBuSj  the  founder  of  modern  botany;  Andrew  Celsius, 
Junior,  the  inventor  of  the  centigrade  thermometer;  John 
AhlstrcBmer,  the  pioneer  of  industry;  John  Ihre,  the  able 
philologist,  and  Olof  von  Dalin,  the  poet,  humorist,  and, 
with  Sven  Lagerbring,  the  first  modern  historian  of  Swe- 
den, The  Period  of  '^Liberty,"  viz.,  of  an  Aristocratic 
Republic,  was  the  golden  era  of  Swedish  science,  the  latter 
for  the  first  time  becoming  of  universal  fame  and  of  uni- 
versal importance.  The  scientists  of  this  period  belong  to 
the  fathers  of  modem  research,  basing  their  conclusions  upon 
personal  observation,  in  strong  contrast  to  their  fathers  and 
precursors  of  the  chauvinistic  barocco  period. 

Emanuel  Swedenborg,  the  most  remarkable  man  whom 
Sweden  has  ever  brought  forth,  was  born  in  Stockholm, 
June  29,  1688.  His  father  was  Jesper  Svedberg,  bishop 
of  Skara^  in  West  Gothland,  and  his  mother  Sara  Behm. 
The  tendency  toward  mysticism,  an  inheritance  from  his 
father,  was  noticed  in  him  at  an  early  age.  He  has  told 
of  himself  that  between  the  age  of  four  and  ten  his  thoughts 
were  exclusively  occupied  with  religious  subjects.  While 
in  prayer,  he  sometimes  entered  a  somnambulic  condition, 
revealing  things  which  surprised  his  parents,  who  said  that 
angels  spoke  through  him.  As  a  child,  he  had  the  idea  of 
God  as  one,  without  any  conception  of  a  Trinity.  Later 
he  received  instruction  in  the  systematic  theology  of  his 
day.  His  father  gave  him  a  thorough  training  in  the 
Oriental  and  classical  languages.  The  early  mysticism  of 
the  boy  was  supplanted  by  a  thirst  for  knowledge  of  the 
phenomena  of  life  and  nature,  coupled  to  a  burning  desire 
to  illustrate  his  reading  by  practical  experiments.     Having 


883  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

entered  the  University  of  Upsala,  he  at  first  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  the  classical  languages  and  literature,  later 
to  that  of  mathematics  and  natural  science.  When  the 
university  was  visited  by  the  plague  in  1710,  and  almost  all 
courses  of  instruction  were  interrupted,  Swedenborg  made 
a  journey  for  scientific  purposes  to  England,  Holland, 
France  and  G^ermanyo  He  returned  in  1714,  enriched  with 
valuable  results.  In  1716-18  he  published  the  first  scien- 
tific journal  of  Sweden,  ''Daedalus  Hyperboreus,"  treating 
subjects  of  mathematics  and  physical  science.  In  1716  he 
came  in  close  personal  contact  with  Charles  XIIc  at  the 
university  town  of  Lund,  'Phe  king,  being  deeply  im- 
pressed by  his  great  learning  and  practical  ability,  appointed 
him  assistant  assessor  of  the  college  of  mining,  Sweden- 
borg had,  hy  the  scholar  Eric  BenzehuSj  been  made  ac- 
quainted with  the  idea  of  the  old  Bishop  Brask,  of  the  time 
cf  Gustavus  I.,  to  "cut  up  the  land"  between  the  North  Sea 
and  the  Baltic  to  make  a  navigable  route  through  Sweden. 
Swedenborg  gave  close  attention  to  this  scheme,  and  com- 
mumcated  his  plans  to  Charles  XII.,  who  became  very  much 
interested  in  them.  Christopher  Polhem  was  selected  to 
build  the  great  canal,  and  Swedenborg  was  made  his  assist- 
anto  "We  know  from  the  sketch  of  Polhem  "s  life  why  the 
great  work  failed  erf  aocomplishmento  Swedenborg  gave 
a  proof  of  his  superior  genius  as  a  practical  engineer  during 
the  siege  of  FFedericshalL  Tordenskiold  made  the  sea  un- 
safe and  had  hedged  in  the  Swedish  fleet  at  Iddefiordo  The 
Swedish  boats  and  galleys  were  then  carried  overland  to 
the  town  of  Strcemstad,  travelling  the  main  road  for  fifteen 
miles  on  rolling  machines  devised  by  Swedenborg.  After 
the  death  of  Charles  XII.,  whom  he  highly  respected,  Swe- 
denborg travelled  to   Saxony  and  Hungary  to  study  the 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  S23 

mining  industry  of  these  countries.  Returning  in  1722, 
he  entered  for  the  first  time  upon  his  work  of  the  college  of 
mining,  becoming  assessor  a  few  years  later.  In  1719  ho 
was  ennobled  with  his  brothers  and  sisters,  when  the  change 
of  name  from  Svedberg  to  Swedenborg  was  made.  In  1724 
he  declined  to  accept  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala,  dividing  his  time  between  his  official 
work  and  his  studies,  until  1747,  when  he  resigned  from 
his  position  with  a  pension  of  the  same  amount  as  his  sal- 
ary. His  religious  works  were  commenced  in  1745,  and 
after  that  time  he  made  repeated  journeys  to  London  or 
Amsterdam  to  have  these  printed,  as  they  could  not  be  pub- 
lished in  Sweden  on  account  of  the  strict  and  highly  ortho- 
dox censure  of  that  periodo 

In  1744  the  event  occurred  which  Swedenborg  in  various 
places  of  his  works  has  described  as  the  opening  of  his 
spiritual  sight,  or  the  manifestations  of  the  Lord  to  him 
in  person.  He  had  not,  by  geometrical,  physical  and  meta- 
physical principles,  succeeded  in  grasping  the  infinite  and 
the  spiritual,  or  their  relation  to  the  nature  of  man,  but  he 
had  touched  on  facts  and  methods  which  seemed  to  conduct 
him  in  the  right  direction.  He  thought  that  God  had  led 
him  into  the  natural  sciences  in  order  to  prepare  him  for  his 
later  spiritual  development.  The  visions  of  his  boyhood 
returned,  now  conceived  by  a  nature  enriched  by  the  ex- 
periences of  a  life  spent  in  ardent  and  scientific  research. 
The  great  seer  remained  a  man  whom  everybody  loved  and 
respected.  People  who  did  not  believe  in  his  visions  feared 
to  ridicule  them  in  the  presence  of  this  august  savant.  His 
manner  of  life  was  simple,  his  diet  chiefly  consisting  of 
bread,  milk  and  large  quantities  of  coffee.  He  made  little 
distinction  between  night  and  day,  and  sometimes  lay  for 


824  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

days  in  a  trance.  His  servants  were  often  disturbed  at 
night  by  hearing  him  engaged  in  what  he  called  conflicts 
with  evil  spiritSo  His  intercourse  with  spirits  was  often 
perfectly  calm,  in  broad  daylights  and  with  all  his  faculties 
awakco  He  held  that  every  man  and  woman  has  the  same 
power  oi  spiritual  intercourse,  although  not  developed  in 
the  same  degree  as  it  was  found  in  him^ 

The  work  which  established  the  scientific  reputation  of 
Swedenborg  was  published,  in  1734,  in  three  massive  folios, 
at  the  expense  of  Duke  Ludvig  Rudolph  of  Brunswick. 
The  second  and  third  volumes  describe  the  best  methods 
employed  in  Europe  and  America  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron,  copper  and  brasSo  The  first  volume  contains  a  philo- 
sophical explanation  of  the  elementary  world  which  has 
aroused  admiration  as  a  beautiful,  daring  and  consistent 
creation  of  human  genius,  worthy  of  being  placed  side  by 
eide  with  the  works  of  Newton,  and  replete  with  remark- 
able ideas  and  anticipations  of  later  discoverieSo  Sweden- 
borg  indicated  the  existence  of  the  seventh  planet  forty 
years  before  Uranus  was  discovered  by  HerscheL  He  was 
the  first  to  form  an  idea  of  the  development  of  nebulsB  from 
chaotic  masses  to  concrete  heavenly  bodies,  a  hypothesis 
later  perfected  by  Herschel,  and  the  first  to  offer  the  theory, 
later  developed  by  Buffon,  Kant  and  La  PlacCa  of  the  solar 
origin  of  the  planets  and  their  satellites.  As  in  astronomy, 
so  also  in  physics  and  geology  he  preconceived  great  discov- 
erieSc  His  experiments  and  theories  in  physics  have  been 
confirmed  by  the  discoveries  of  the  polarity  of  light  and  the 
galvanometer  and  its  magnetic  propertieSc  Swedenborg 
discovered  before  anybody  else  the  great  importance  of 
magnetism  and  the  fact  that  magneti^n  and  electricity  are 
manifestations  of  the  same  power.     He  made  observations 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  325 

concerning  air  and  water  which  have  been  confirmed  as  to 
their  correctness  by  Priestley,  Cavendish  and  Lavoisier, 
who  long  were  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  discoverers. 
In  geologys,  he  wa:^  the  first  to  demonstrate  that  the  Scan- 
dinavian peninsulaj  except  the  southern  part  of  Scania,  was 
a  rising  continent,  proving  the  earlier  level  of  the  sea  to 
have  been  much  higher  and  the  inland  lakes  to  have  stood 
in  connection  with  the  seao  Through  his  remarks  on  bowl= 
ders,  he  gave  rise  to  th©  later  theories  of  Berzelius  and 
Saefstrom  of  a  bowldsr  periodo  Upon  these  researches  fol- 
lowed great  and  remarkable  works  of  anatomy,  which,  by 
later  anatomists  of  the  first  rank,  have  been  declared  to  be 
classics  in  the  literature  of  physiologyo  His  immense  work^ 
''Arcana  Ooelestia,"  and  other  theosophical  writings  which 
he  has  placed  as  a  foundation  for  the  Kew  Church,  and  on 
which  his  present  fame  rests,  were  not  so  celebrated  in  his 
days  as  his  scientific  workso  Like  the  latter,  they  were  ail 
written  in  Latin, 

The  new  religion,  founded  by  Swedenborgg  more  spirit- 
uai  than  the  old,  has  proved  equally  attractive  to  the  in= 
dividual  and  idealistic  thinkers  of  all  sects,  Protestants  and 
Catholics,  Unitarians  and  Theosophists,  Swedenborg  made 
no  attempt  to  establish  a  sect,  and  the  New  Church  as  an 
organization  is  the  result  of  a  movement  which  was  started 
after  his  deatho 

In  his  personal  appearance  Swedenborg  was  a  middle- 
sized  man  of  strong  constitution.  His  head  was  of  a  fine 
shape,  the  color  of  his  face  somewhat  dark  and  its  express 
sion  pensive,  but  his  blue  eyes  were  large  and  radianto  His 
disposition  was  amiable.  He  was  a  man  of  the  world,  fond 
of  music  and  society,  especially  of  that  of  cultured  women, 
and  was  often  seen  at  court.     He  had  a  tendency  to  stutter 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

when  speaking  fast,  for  which  reason  he  used  a  slow  dic- 
tion, characterized  by  choice  and  mature  expressionSo  In 
his  youth,  he  frequented  the  house  of  Christopher  Polhem 
and  fell  in  love  with  his  daughter  Emerentiao  Both  Pol- 
hem  and  Charles  XII.  favored  the  idea  of  seeing  them 
united,  the  young  girl  of  fourteen  giving  her  consent.  But 
young  Emerentia  was  secretly  in  love  with  somebody  else, 
and  her  health  and  disposition  suffered  under  the  strain. 
When  Swedenborg  discovered  the  truth,  he  gave  his  be- 
trothed freedom  from  her  allegiance»  He  ceased  to  visit  the 
house  of  Polhem  and  never  entered  any  other  relation  of 
love. 

In  1770,  at  the  age  of  eighty-two,  Swedenborg  for  the 
last  time  visited  Amsterdam.  John  Co  Cuno,  who  then 
saw  him,  thus  described  the  impression  which  the  aged 
visionary  and  thinker  made  upon  him:  **He  looked  so 
touchingly  pious,  and  when  I  gazed  into  his  smiling  eyes 
of  a  heavenly  blue,  it  always  seemed  to  me  that  truth  itself 
spoke  from  his  lips.'*  Swedenborg  left  Amsterdam  for 
London,  where,  on  Christmas  eve,  1772,  he  was  struck 
by  hemiplegia.  After  a  few  weeks  he  recovered  his  speech, 
and  his  faculties  were  clear  to  the  last.  The  chaplain  of  the 
Swedish  legation  asked  him  if  he  had  not  formulated  the 
doctrines  of  his  new  religion  in  order  to  gain  fame,  and  if 
he  wished  to  recall  it  all  before  he  died.  The  yet  partly 
paralyzed  man  raised  himself  into  a  sitting  position,  say- 
ings ^'As  true  as  it  is  that  you  see  me  here  in  front  of  you, 
as  true  is  also  all  that  I  have  written,  and  in  eternity  you 
will  find  a  confirmation  of  it.'*  The  chaplain  asked  him 
if  he  wanted  to  receive  the  sacrament,  Swedenborg  an- 
swered 2  "I  need  it  not;  for  I  am  already  a  member  of  the 
other  world;  but  your  intention  is  good,  and  I  will  with  joy 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  327 

receive  the  sacrament  in  token  of  the  bond  of  unity  between 
heaven  and  earth."  Swedenborg  died  March  29,  1772,  and 
was  buried  in  the  Lutheran  church  of  London. 

Swedenborg  was  shrewd  in  worldly  affairs  and  discussed 
pontics  and  finance  in  the  Swedish  Riksdag  for  nearly  a 
score  of  years  after  his  visions  and  theological  writings  had 
begun  to  occupy  most  of  his  time. 

If  the  theological  works  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg  at  first 
were  apt  to  discredit  the  results  of  his  manifold  scientific 
research  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  did  not  share  his  theo- 
sophical  views,  the  renown  of  the  great  religious  thinker 
in  later  times  has  outshone  the  fame  of  which,  as  the  versa- 
tile scholar  and  philosopher,  he  was  so  eminently  worthyo 
With  his  younger  contemporary,  Charles  Linnaeus  (or  Carl 
von  Linne),  the  case  was  different.  There  was  in  his  career 
no  radical  change  to  divert  or  throw  an  umbrage  over  the 
fame  he  had  won  as  a  scientist  of  the  very  first  ranko 

Charles  Linnaeus,  the  most  celebrated  of  Swedish  scien- 
tists, was  born  at  Rashult,  in  Smaland,  in  1707o  His  father 
was  a  minister  of  a  very  subordinate  charge  of  the  state 
church.  The  neighborhood  in  which  the  young  Linnaeus 
grew  up  was  not  fertile,  but  rich  in  flowers,  which  were 
the  toys  and  comrades  of  his  childhoodo  He  made  but  little 
progress  at  his  work  in  the  college  of  Vexio,  being  more 
fond  of  collecting  and  examining  plants  than  of  studying 
Greek  and  Latin.  It  was  the  wish  of  his  parents  that  he 
should  become  a  minister  and  the  assistant  of  his  father; 
but  the  youth  had  so  little  inclination  to  pursue  the  life  or 
studies  of  a  clergyman  that  he  at  last  foimd  it  necessary 
to  tell  his  parents  so.  He  had  found  a  friend  and  protector 
in  Doctor  Rothman,  a  district  physician,  who  encouraged 
him  to  follow  his  ambition  of  becoming  a  naturalist  and 


528  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

physician.  Doctor  Rothman  supervised  his  studies  in  bot- 
any and  succeeded  in  teaching  him  Latin  by  giving  him 
the  natural  history  of  Pliny  to  study.  In  this  manner  Lin- 
naeus, who  at  college  showed  utter  dislike  for  the  classical 
languages,  learned  to  write  and  speak  Latin  with  ease. 
His  teachers,  who  at  first  had  advised  his  parents  to  let 
him  quit  the  book,  in  order  to  take  up  some  trade,  were 
made  aware  of  his  gifted  nature,  but  as  he  was  found 
deficient  in  the  regular  courses,  their  recommendation, 
necessary  for  his  admittance  to  the  University  of  Lund, 
was  very  carefully  worded.  "The  youths  in  our  colleges 
may  be  likened  unto  little  trees  in  a  plant  school,  where 
it  happens,  although  but  rarely,  that  young  trees  upon 
which  the  greatest  care  have  been  lavished  do  not  turn  out 
well,  but  resemble  wild  stems,  yet,  when  removed  and  trans- 
planted, change  their  wild  nature  and  develop  into  beautiful 
trees  of  agreeable  fruit.  Likewise,  and  for  no  other  pur- 
pose, this  youth  is  sent  to  the  university,  where  he  may 
venture  into  a  climate  favorable  to  his  growth,"  There 
was  an  accurate  but  unconscious  prophecy  concealed  in  this 
beautiful  * 'recommendation,''  which,  curiously  enough,  has 
chosen  the  similes  which  were  considered  indispensable  in 
the  artificial  language  of  the  period  from  the  world  of 
plants,  when  speaking  of  the  future  flower  king  of  the 
North. 

The  young  Linnaeus  made  his  way  to  the  university 
town  of  Southern  Sweden,  walking  the  whole  distance  from 
Vexio  to  Lund,  with  a  heavy  knapsack  and  a  light  pocket- 
book.  He  was  in  hopes  to  win  the  protection  of  his  uncle, 
the  influential  dean  of  the  cathedral.  Upon  entering  Lund, 
he  heard  all  church  bells  tolhng,  and,  upon  inquiry,  learned 
that  they  rang  for  the  funeral  of  his  uncle,  the  dean!     A 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEir  329 

former  teacher  of  his  managed  to  have  him  enrolled  at  the 
university  without  having  to  turn  in  the  diplomatic  recom- 
mendation from  his  collegOo  He  took  his  bachelor's  degree 
and  was  kindly  encouraged  by  Professor  Chihan  StobseuSg 
at  w^ose  house  he  was  stopping.  The  mother  of  StobsBUS 
told  him  to  look  after  the  young  man  from  Smaland,  who 
was  in  the  habit  of  going  to  sleep  with  his  candle  left  burn- 
ings thus  liabl©  to  **lead  the  whole  house  into  adventuroo" 
"When  the  learned  professor  looked  into  the  matter  he  found 
his  own  works  in  the  hands  of  the  youthj  who  spent  his 
nights  reading  theme  After  that  all  the  books  and  the 
heartfelt  sympathy  of  the  scholar  were  at  the  command 
of  Linnaeus. 

In  1728  Linnaeus,  so  advised  by  his  earliest  protector, 
changed  his  place  of  study  to  the  University  of  Upsala, 
which  at  the  time  was  better  equipped  and  provided  with 
a  fine  botanical  garden^  The  young  scholar  endured  a 
great  deal  of  suffering  for  lack  of  funds,  his  father  no 
longer  being  able  to  provide  for  his  support.  His  diet  was 
very  light,  and  he  wrapped  his  benumbed  feet  in  paper  to 
keep  them  from  peeping  out  of  his  ragged  shoes.  His 
father  called  him  home  to  reconsider  his  resolution  as  to 
a  ministerial  calUng.  Linnaeus  was  ready  to  leave  and 
paid  a  farewell  visit  to  the  botanic  gardens^  He  lingered 
in  melancholy  thoughts  before  a  rare  flower  which  he  in- 
tended to  pluck.  A  harsh  voice  behind  commanded  him 
to  leave  the  flower  alone.  Linnaeus  turned  and  stood  face 
to  face  with  the  dean,  Olof  Celsius  the  Elder.  In  the  inter- 
view which  followed  the  young  man  surprised  the  dean, 
who  was  an  able  and  enthusiastic  botanist,  by  his  excep- 
tional knowledge  of  plants.  Celsius  inquired  about  his 
circumstances  and  ended  by  taking  him  into  his  house  and 


330  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

providing  for  his  future.  Shortly  afterward  Linnseus  pub- 
lished a  short  but  important  treatise  on  the  sexual  life  of 
plants,  which  he  handed  in  to  Professor  Olof  Rudbeck  the 
Younger^  This  able  scholar  was  forcibly  struck  by  the  in- 
genuity of  the  thoughts  in  the  workc,  which  contaiued  the 
nucleus  to  the  grand  scientific  system  which  Linnseus  later 
developed=  When,  in  1730,  Rudbeck  obtained  a  vacation  he 
had  Linnaeus  installed  as  a  lecturer  of  the  botanic  gardens. 
Shortly  afterward  Linnaeus  received  the  commission  to  pay 
a  visit  of  botanic  research  to  Lapland,  on  the  plants  of 
which  he  pubUshed  a  remarkable  work.  The  journey  was 
made  on  horseback,  the  young  scholar  returning  deeply 
impressed  by  the  grandeur  of  natural  sceneries  in  the  ex- 
treme North. 

Linnaeus  had  to  fight  poverty  and  adversity  for  some 
time  still.  His  mother,  who  always  had  regretted  that  he 
should  **turn  out  a  surgeon  instead  of  a  minister/'  was  elated 
over  his  first  triumph  when  opening  the  field  of  a  new  science 
by  his  sexual  system  of  plants.  He  suffered  all  the  more  at 
her  death,  which  he  was  forced  to  conceal  because  he  could 
not  afford  a  mourning  garb.  Envious  comrades  put  an  end 
to  his  lectures  at  Upsala  by  having  enforced,  through  peti- 
tions, an  order  against  the  filling  of  temporary  vacancies 
by  men  who  had  not  taken  the  doctor's  degree.  It  was 
found  necessary  for  Linnaeus  to  go  abroad,  and  some 
money  was  subscribed  by  his  friends  for  that  purpose. 
In  Holland  he  met  the  learned  Professor  Boerhave,  who, 
on  being  made  acquainted  with  his  system  of  botany, 
which  Linnaeus  then  for  the  first  time  published,  received 
him  with  tokens  of  unlimited  admiration  and  friendship. 
It  was  by  Boerhave  that  the  continental  fame  of  Linnaeus 
was  founded.     The  latter  found,  in  the  arranging  of  the 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  331 

great  gardens  of  Hartekamp  intrusted  to  him,  a  work  both 
agreeable  and  instructiveo  In  London,  Linnaeus  broadened 
his  experience  with  study  of  the  rich  collections  of  plants 
and  naturalia  which  were  made  accessible  to  him  by  the 
celebrated  scholar  Hans  Sloane,  later  the  founder  of  the 
British  Museumo  The  letter  of  recommendation  from  Boer- 
have  was  somewhat  different  to  the  one  LinnsBUS  had  re- 
ceived at  Vexio:  **  Linnaeus,  who  hands  you  this  letterp 
is  the  only  one  worthy  to  see  you,  and  to  be  seen  by  you. 
Those  who  see  you  together  look  upon  two  men  the  peers 
of  which  the  world  does  hardly  possess."  After  a  stay  in 
Paris,  where  the  greatest  scientists  of  France  treated  him 
with  distinction,  he  returned  to  Holland,  to  find  his  friend 
Boerhave  dying  in  Leyden.  Linnaeus  kissed  the  hand  of 
the  dying  man,  who  insisted  on  kissing  the  hand  of  Lin- 
naeus in  return,  pronouncing  him  the  greater  genius,  of 
whom  the  world  should  expect  and  receive  more, 

Linnaeus,  the  celebrated  founder  of  a  new  sciences  re- 
turned home  as  an  unknown  man.  His  abihty  as  a  physi- 
cian, acquired  at  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  his  growing 
continental  fame  soon  made  him  distinguished.  In  1741 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  medicine  at  Upsala,  but 
changed  chairs  with  the  professor  of  botany.  The  study 
of  the  latter  science  was  highly  developed  through  the 
continued  research  of  Linnaeus,  and  became  very  popular, 
while  giving  a  great  impetus  to  the  study  of  medicine. 
The  grace  and  animation  of  Linnaeus  as  a  lecturer  caused 
students  and  scholars  to  flock  around  him  in  hundreds. 
The  botanic  excursions  led  by  Linneeus  resembled  daily 
marches  of  triumphs,  the  multitude  of  students  escorting 
their  beloved  teacher  back  to  the  botanic  gardens  with 
6owers  in  their  hats  and  with  music  of  drums  and  French 


332  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN" 

homso  Sweden,  with  Upsala  as  a  centre,  was  for  the  first 
time  in  history  considered  a  home  of  scientific  culture,  to 
which  naturalists  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
America  included.  Pupils  of  ability  and  distinction  were 
sent  by  Linnaeus  to  strange  and  unknown  quarters,  from 
which  they  returned  with  new  and  unfamiliar  plants,  which 
were  examined  and  classified  by  the  flower  king  of  the 
North.  LinnsBus  was  honored  by  his  contemporaries  in 
such  a  superlative  manner  as  no  one  of  his  countrymen, 
before  or  after,  and  few  other  scientists  of  any  age  or  coun- 
tryo  Count  Charles  Qustavus  Tessin  has  the  credit  of  hav- 
ing encouraged  him  in  his  work  and  improved  his  career 
upon  his  return  from  the  Oontinent«  When  ennobled,  Lin- 
naeus changed  his  name  to  Von  Linne,  the  earlier  form 
being  the  more  familiar  to  English  readerSo  King  Qus- 
tavus IIL  presented  him  with  the  estate  Hammarby,  where 
he  liked  to  dwell,  surrounded  by  his  flowers  and  his  family, 
resting  from  the  fatigue  caused  by  the  endless  stream  of 
distinguished  pilgrims  who  came  to  visit  his  flower  court 
at  Upsaiac  The  offers  of  foreign  monarchs  to  have  him 
come  and  dwell  with  them  were  many  and  liberal o  In  1739 
he  married  the  love  of  his  youth,  Maria  Elizabeth  Morseus, 
"and  never  since  felt  an  inclination  to  leave  Sweden, '* 

Linnaeus  in  many  respects  resembled  Swedenborg,  being 
convinced  that  his  acceptance  of  truth  was  the  correct  one 
and  disMking  disputeSo  Like  Swedenborg,  he  was  pious, 
modest,  benevolent  and  sincere.  Of  his  own  exterior  and 
disposition  Linnaeus  has  himseK  given  the  following  char- 
acteristic account:  *^ Linnaeus  was  not  tall,  not  small,  lean, 
brown-eyed,  light,  quick,  walked  briskly,  did  everything 
promptly,  disliked  slow  people,  was  sensitive,  easily  moved, 
worked  continuously  and  could  not  spare  himself.     He  was 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  333 

fond  of  good  food  and  drank  good  drinks,  but  never  to  ex- 
cess. He  cared  little  for  exteriors,  considering  that  man 
Bhould  adorn  his  dress  and  not  vice  versa.  Faculty  meet- 
ings were  not  his  delight,  or  business,  for  he  was  made  for 
quite  other  things,  and  had  other  things  in  mind  than  those 
which  there  were  discussed  and  decided  upon."  In  the 
preface  to  the  late  edition  of  his  principal  work,  **Systema 
NatursB,"  the  following  noteworthy  paragraph  is  found :  *'I 
saw  the  shadow  of  the  Supreme  Being  go  past  me,  and 
I  was  seized  with  respect  and  admiratiouc  I  searched  for 
His  footsteps  in  the  sand — what  power,  what  wisdom!  I 
Baw  how  the  animals  existed  only  by  means  of  the  plants, 
the  plants  by  means  of  the  lifeless  particles^  and  these  in 
their  turn  constitute  the  earth,  I  saw  the  sun  and  stars 
without  number  hanging  suspended  in  the  air,  held  by  the 
hand  of  the  Being  of  beings,  the  artist  of  this  grand  master- 
piece " 

Linnaeus  died  January  iO,  I7785  and  was  buried  in  the 
cathedral  of  Upsala,  His  botanic  system  has  been  super- 
seded by  others,  but  the  influence  that  his  researches  and 
discoveries  have  exerted  on  the  natural  sciences  and  medi- 
cine, has  not  ceased  to  be  benignantly  felt,  nor  have  the 
utmost  results  of  his  researches  been  as  yet  attained 

Andrew  Celsius,  professor  of  astronomy  at  Upsala, 
acquired  fame  as  a  writer  en  astronomy  and  was  success- 
ful in  his  efforts  to  have  an  observatory  built  at  the  uni- 
versity. In  1742  he  introduced  his  invention,  the  Celsius 
or  centigrade  thermometer,  which  is  of  almost  indispensable 
practical  value  in  all  physical  and  chemical  experiments. 
Olof  Celsius,  Senior,  the  able  botanist,  Orientalist  and 
patron  of  Linnseus,  was  his  uncle,  he  thus  being  a  cousin 
of  Olof  Celsius,  Junior,  whose  brightly  written  histories  of 


834  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Gustavus  Vasa  and  Eric  XIV.  were  translated  into  contem- 
poraneous French  and  German. 

John  AhlstroBmer  accomplished  more  for  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  downtrodden  industry  of  his  country  than 
any  one  else,  and  therefore  justly  deserves  the  name  of  the 
Father  of  Swedish  Industry  This  man,  who  occupies  an 
honored  place  m  Swedish  history,  was  bom  in  1685,  of  poor 
parents,  at  the  town  of  Alingsos,  in  West  Gothland,  his 
<^riginal  name  being  John  Toresson=  He  worked  himself 
up  in  various  mercantile  positions  in  Stockholm  and  other 
towns,  later  coming  to  London,  where  he  engaged  in  busi- 
ness of  his  own  and  became  an  English  citizeuc  He  saw 
with  regret  that  his  countrymen  sent  their  money  abroad 
to  obtam  articles  which  they  could  manufacture  at  home, 
and  was  seized  with  the  ambition  to  introduce  into  Sweden 
the  mdustries  which  constitute  the  foundation  of  England's 
mercantile  wealth. 

When  Charles  XII.  returned  to  Sweden^  Ahlstrcemer 
went  there  also,  trying  to  win  the  king  to  his  industrial 
planso  He  did  not  succeed,  but  found  in  Christopher  Pol- 
hem  a  man  who  listened  to  and  appreciated  them.  Ahl- 
strcemer intended  to  return  to  England,  but  was  captured  by 
the  Danes  during  the  journey.  On  account  of  his  English 
citizenship  he  soon  regained  his  liberty,  visiting  England 
and  the  Continentj  and  carefully  selecting  everything  which 
he  had  in  view  of  sending  to  Sweden  as  the  requisite  instru- 
ments for  his  plans.  This  work  sometimes  involved  great 
danger,  as  the  buying  of  looms  for  hose  and  ribbon^  fulling 
vats^  dyes,  etc. ;  for  the  great  manufacturing  countries  were 
keeping  jealous  watch  that  the  secrets  of  their  industries 
should  not  become  known  abroad.  In  a  town  in  Holland, 
Ahlstrcemer  k>arely  missed  being  pelted  with  stones  by  the 


HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN  335 

mob  Pursued  by  the  revenue  authoritieSa  he  managed  to 
escape  with  his  ship,  arriving  safely  in  Gothenburg  with 
the  valuable  cargo  and  skilled  laborers  in  his  employ. 
Shortly  afterward  he  arrived  in  his  native  town  of  Alingsos, 
where  the  industrial  enterprises  were  established.  The 
Riksdag  at  first  was  unwilling  to  grant  him  the  necessary 
concessions,  the  clergy  especially  being  averse  to  allow  so 
many  foreign  workingmen  free  confession  of  their  Catholic 
religion.  In  1724  the  concessions  were  at  last  obtained^  and 
Ahlstroemer  began  his  course,  which  he  was  resolved  should 
result  in  the  fostering  of  the  same  industrial  activity  in  his 
impoverished  country,  which  he,  with  surprise,  had  noticed 
in  England  and  on  the  Continent. 

In  establishing  his  enterprises,  Ahlstroemer  exhausted 
his  resources,  and  when  he  tried  to  form  a  company  to  keep 
them  going  he  was  met  with  stubborn  resistance,  caused 
by  ignorance  and  jealousyo  He  succeeded  at  last  in  obtain- 
ing the  financial  backing  of  some  wealthy  mine  owners  of 
Vermland,  who  took  shares  in  his  enterprises.  The  Riks- 
dag of  1726  encouraged  him  by  placing  high  protective  or 
prohibitive  tariffs  on  foreign  articles  which  could  be  pro- 
duced in  the  country„  In  the  following  year  King  Frederic 
paid  a  visit  to  Alingsos,  spending  a  whole  day  in  look- 
ing over  the  mills  and  factorieSo  The  king  said  that 
he  would  rather  own  the  stock  of  goods  of  Ahlstroemer 
than  the  largest  arsenal  in  his  kingdom,  and  saw  to  it  that 
his  servants  were  dressed  in  broadcloth  manufactured  at 
Alingsos. 

Alingsos  saw  its  population  suddenly  increase  from  300 
to  1, 800  and  entered  upon  an  era  of  prosperity.  Ahlstroemer 's 
factories  formed  almost  a  little  town  of  their  own  beside 
the  older  one.     There  were  twelve  looms  for  the  manuf act- 


886  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

uring  of  broadcloth,  forty-five  looms  for  wool,  and,  besides, 
cotton  millsj  dye  works  for  wool  and  silk,  hose  factories, 
an  English  tannery  and  various  other  industrial  workSc  Also 
a  foundry,  with  eight  communicating  shops,  where  all  kinds 
of  household  articles  of  simple  and  composite  metals  were 
manufacturedo  AUngsos  was  made  a  kind  of  normal  school 
of  mdustry  for  the  whole  country.  The  foreign  master 
workmen,  who  at  the  beginning  had  charge  of  the  factories, 
instructed  in  time  a  great  number  of  native  apprentices,  who 
later  found  employment  elsewhere^  thus  distributing  to 
various  parts  the  experience  obtained  at  Alingsos.  Wool 
was  the  principal  material  in  the  factorieSj  and  in  order 
to  obtain  a  refined  quality,  Ahlstrcemer  imported  stocks  of 
foreign  breeds.  He  commenced  with  English  sheep,  the 
Riksdag  of  1727  granting  him  the  use  of  the  royal  estate 
Hoejentorp  for  the  purpose.  Angora  goats  were  later  im- 
ported and  seemed  to  thrive. 

Ahlstroemer  did  his  country  a  great  service  by  intro- 
ducing the  cultivation  of  potatoeSo  The  first  shipment  of 
this  useful  plant  arrived  in  1733^  with  workingmen  imported 
from  FrancOo  As  soon  as  the  plant  was  seen  to  stand  the 
climate,  larger  quantities  were  sent  for.  Potatoes  were 
cultivated  in  the  vast  fields  around  Alingsos  at  a  period 
when  they  were  exhibited  in  the  botanic  gardens  of  the  Con- 
tinent as  rare  plants  from  Peru»  Prejudice  at  first  inter- 
fered,  but  when  the  soldiers  returned  home  from  Pome- 
rania  with  the  habit  of  eating  potatoes,  and  planted  such 
around  their  cottageSj  the  popularity  of  the  Peruvian  plant 
was  assuredo  Ahlstrcemer  also  introduced  the  cultivation 
of  tobacco  and  several  dye  plants.  The  coal  mines,  near 
Helsingborg,  in  Scania,  commenced  to  be  operated  at  his 
instigation.     When  the  Academy  of  Science  was  instituted. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  337 

in  1739,  Ahlstrcemer  was  made  one>  of  its  members.  The 
Academy  of  Science  served  originally  and  in  that  era  oi 
utilitarianism  a  more  practical  purpose  than  later.,  The 
Cap  administration  of  Arvid  Horn  gave  comparatively  lit= 
tie  attention  to  the  enterprises  of  AhlstrcBmerj  having  more 
in  view  to  develop  agriculture  than  industry=  When  the  Hats 
got  into  power  the  conditions  were  reversedc  Count  Charles 
Gyllenborg,  the  successor  of  Arvid  Horn  as  president  of  the 
chancery,  in  order  to  set  a  good  example,  always  dressed  in 
broadcloth  of  Swedish  manufactureo  Ahktroemer  was 
made  a  councillor  of  commerce,  and  ennobledj  while  his  bust 
was  placed  in  the  Exchange  of  Stockholm  and  medals  issued 
in  his  honor  by  the  Academy  of  Scienoeo 

Ahlstrcemer  was  a  middle°sized  man  of  a  strong  consti- 
tution. He  was  amiable,  courteous  and  hospitable,  ever 
ready  to  conduct  visitors  through  Ms  factories  and  ware° 
houseSo  His  energy  was  as  great  as  his  kindness,  and  he 
refused  to  recognize  an  enemy  in  anybodyo  The  large 
profits  of  his  plants  he  mostly  spent  on  other  patriotic 
enterprises,  leaving  hardly  any  other  inheritance  to  his  sons 
than  an  excellent  educatiouo  During  the  last  few  years 
of  his  life  he  suffered  the  consequences  of  a  stroke  of  pa^ 
ralysiSo  He  died  in  1761,  and  thus  was  saved  from  witness° 
ing  the  destruction  which  was  caused  to  the  new  factory 
industry  and  his  own  works  at  Alingsos  by  the  reckless 
policy  of  the  new  Caps. 

Olof  Dalin  is  the  principal  poet  and  writer  of  the  Period 
of  Liberty^  strongly  influencmg  not  only  the  creative  minds 
of  his  own  day,  but  also  those  who  with  more  or  less  right 
have  been  counted  as  belonging  to  the  Gustavian  Periodo 
Dalin  was  the  son  of  a  minister  in  the  province  of  Halland 
and  a  relative  of  Professor  Andrew  Rydelius  of  Lund,  a 

XX 15 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

historian  of  the  older  generation,  who  conducted  the  course 
of  his  studies.  He  came  to  Stockholm  in  1726,  where  sev- 
eral positions  in  various  state  departments  afforded  oppor- 
tunity for  study  in  libraries  and  archives.  Dalin,  from 
the  year  1732  to  1734^  published  a  magazine  called  **The 
Swedish  Argus/'  whichj  with  the  English  ** Spectator"  as 
a  pattern,  contained  articles  on  public  and  individual  morals, 
with  allusions  to  the  facts  of  contemporary  life.  This  pub- 
lication caused  a  great  stir  and  became  very  popular  on 
accoimt  of  the  acute  logic  and  excellent  language  of  its 
editoro  Dahn  was  appointed  royal  librarian  by  the  Riks- 
dag, and,  on  the  recommendation  of  Count  Tessin,  teacher 
to  the  young  crown  prince  Gustavus. 

DaUn  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  glorious  epoch  of 
Swedish  history  and  of  the  character  of  Charles  XII.,  which 
caused  him  to  join  the  party  of  the  Hats.  When  the  latter 
utterly  failed  in  their  attempts  to  restore  the  political  gran- 
deur of  the  past,  and  Dalin  witnessed  the  excesses  of  the 
rivalling  parties,  he  joined  the  secret  agitators  for  an  in- 
creased royal  power.  In  the  literary  and  artistic  circle  of 
the  brilHant  Queen  Louise  Ulrica,  Dalin  was  the  leading 
spirit.  He  was  not  unaware  of  the  conspiracies  and  in- 
trigues of  the  queen,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author 
of  several  of  the  sharp  notes  which  the  king  added  to  the 
records  of  the  state  council.  The  Hats,  who  took  offence 
at  his  sharp  satires,  made  him  resign  from  his  position  as 
the  teacher  of  the  crown  prince.  After  the  conspiracy 
of  the  court  party  was  detected,  Dalin  was  called  before  a 
committee  of  the  Estates  and  by  order  dismissed  from  the 
court.  DaHn  used  the  time  of  his  compulsory  isolation  for 
the  writing  of  a  history  of  Sweden.  This  work,  which 
never  was  carried  further  than  to  the  end  of  the  Period 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  339 

of  Reformation,  is  characterized  by  an  attractive  style, 
but  is  not  reliable  as  to  factSo 

Dalin  was  allowed  to  return  to  the  court  in  1761,  He 
stood  in  great  favor  and  was  covered  with  testimonials  of 
appreciation.  He  died  in  1763,  at  the  moment  when  King 
Adolphus  Frederic  was  resolved  to  make  him  a  state  coun- 
cilloFo  Dalin  was  the  first  writer  who  made  Swedish  his- 
tory popular,  and  exerted,  by  his  poems  and  his  magazincj 
and  by  his  education  of  Gustavus  III.j  a  considerable  influx 
ence  upon  the  history  of  his  own  time. 

In  point  of  scientific  research  the  historical  works  of 
Sven  Lagerbring  have  a  much  higher  value  than  Dalin's 
history,  although  they  lacked  the  Hterary  excellence  of 
the  latter.  Lagerbring,  who,  born  in  Scania,  was  professor 
of  history  at  the  University  of  Lund,  carried  his  work  to  the 
times  of  Charles  VIIIo  A  shorter  history  of  his  was  trans- 
lated into  French  and  long  formed  the  chief  source  of  con- 
tinental knowledge  of  Swedish  history. 

As  a  poet  Dalin  had  a  rival  in  the  somewhat  younger 
Hedvig  Charlotta  Nordenflycht,  one  of  the  most  interesting 
characters  in  Swedish  history  of  literature.  Her  works, 
chiefly  consisting  of  lyrics  and  idyls^  show  a  long  chain 
of  development  from  the  taste  of  the  Carolinian  period  to 
that  of  the  Gustavian  epoch.  In  her  deep  emotional  nature 
and  enthusiasm  for  all  cultural  movements  she  stands  with° 
out  a  rival.  Receiving  an  annuity  from  the  government, 
she  was  after  many  adversities  able  to  maintain  a  literary 
salon.  The  men  who  met  there,  like  Gustavus  Phihp 
Creutz  and  Gustavus  Frederic  Gyllenborg,  were  the  found- 
ers of  an  academic  style  in  poetry,  as  was  Charles  Gustavus 
Tessin  in  eloquence. 

John  Ihre  is  perhaps  the  most  highly  gifted  of  Swedish 


940  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

philologists  and  the  first  whose  research  had  a  lasting  scien- 
tific value.  He  stood  at  the  summit  of  contemporary  Eu* 
ropean  study  of  language,  and  rose  a  head  or  more  higher 
than  the  philologists  of  his  own  coimtry  in  that  day.  The 
period  was  characterized  by  a  movement  for  the  purification 
and  analyzation  of  the  language,  Dalin  expressing  his  wish 
to  speak  the  truth  to  the  Swedes  in  pure  Swedish,  and  the 
Academy  of  Science  taking  pride  in  publishing  their  impor- 
tant papers  in  the  mother  tongue.  Eric  Benzelius,  an  able 
critic  of  the  Gothic,  and  interested  in  Swedish  dialect  re- 
search, was  one  of  the  precursors  of  Ihre ;  and  so  was  Olof 
Celsius,  Senior,  professor  of  Greek,  later  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages, who  was  the  first  to  fix  the  age  of  the  majority 
of  Runic  inscriptions  as  dating  from  the  Christian  era. 

John  Ihre  was  born,  in  1707,  in  Lund,  where  his  father 
was  a  professor  of  theology,  a  talented,  witty  and  learned 
man.  The  young  Ihre  lost  his  father  in  1720,  after  which 
time  his  uncle.  Archbishop  Steuchius  of  Upsala,  had  charge 
of  his  education.  He  later  studied  modem  languages  at  the 
University  of  Jena,  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  contem- 
porary philologists  of  Holland,  and  also  studied  at  the  uni- 
versities of  London,  Oxford  and  Paris.  After  an  absence 
of  three  years  he  returned,  soon  to  be  connected  with  the 
University  of  Upsala,  where  he  remained  for  forty- two 
years  as  professor  of  rhetoric  and  politics.  Ihre  was  a  lib- 
eral, outspoken  man,  who  was  severely  censured  for  his  opin- 
ions upon  political  and  reUgious  subjects,  once  by  the  Riksdag 
being  sentenced  to  pay  fines  and  receiving  a  warning  from  the 
chancellor  of  the  university.  When  the  clergy  upon  another 
occasion  warned  the  philosophers  not  to  mix  in  theological 
subjects,  Ihre  defended  himself  in  the  following  terms  in 
a  letter  to  the  chancellor.  Count  Charles  Gustavus  Tessin. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEK  341 

''Gracious  lord!   I  teach  eloquentiam^  poUticam  and  the 

states,  with  all  things  pertaining  to  them.  Tc  become  a 
heretic  I  possess  neither  genius  nor  stupidity  enough^  less 
an  evil  purpose.  Therefore  1  am  willing  to  for^o  all  the- 
ology, if  only  an  allowance  of  it  be  made  large  enough  for 
my  private  practice  and  edification  in  Christianity.  I  never 
intended  to  go  any  further." 

Ihre  left  religion  and  politics  alonoj  and  received  many 
high  distinctions  in  return  for  his  great  scientific  meritSo 
When  ennobled,  he  kept  his  old  family  name,  stating  that 
he  was  "somewhat  known  abroad  under  the  name  of  Ihre/^ 
while  if  he  changed  it  to  Gyllenbiom  or  Vargstiema^  it 
would  take  **some  time  to  announce  this  new  disguiseo*' 
He  was  renowned  for  his  ready  wit,  and  wielded  a  consid- 
erable infiuence  in  academic  circles.  Ihre  was  satisfied 
with  his  position  and  his  science,  and  was  not  willing  to 
exchange  them  for  a  political  career, 

Ihre  was  led  to  the  study  of  the  Teutonic  languages  in 
their  oldest  forms  by  his  desire  to  find  a  consistent  spelling 
and  correct  understanding  of  the  words  in  his  own  lan^ 
guage.  He  was  desirous  of  freeing  it  from  foreign  words, 
but  only  when  those  substituted  were  as  expressive  and 
comprehensible  as  the  old.  Ihre  was  a  pioneer  in  the  field 
of  dialect  lexicographers,  publishing  the  outline  of  a  Swed- 
ish dialect  dictionary  in  1766,  and  wrote  a  number  of  works 
pertaining  to  the  historic  forms  of  Gothic,  Lappish^  Finnish 
and  Old  Norse.  Special  importance  is  due  to  his  epoch- 
making  research  concerning  the  language  of  the  Codex  Ar- 
genteus.  He  once  for  all  settled  the  controversyg  proving 
the  Codex  to  contain  the  Gothic  Bible  translation  of  Bishop 
"Wulfila  against  the  assertions  of  M.  Lacroze  of  Berlin,  who 
claimed  that  it  was  written  in  Frankish.     In  regard  to  the 


d42  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEII 

Edda  of  Snorre  Sturleson,  he  declared  it  to  be  intended  as 
an  introductory  study  of  poesy,  a  handbook  of  poetics  for 
young  scalds,  an  opinion  which  has  been  fully  established 
in  a  much  later  time.  By  these  and  other  theories  Ihre 
attained  a  much  higher  standpoint  as  a  scientific  critic  than 
his  contemporaries.  He  spoke  of  the  resemblance  between 
the  Teutonic  and  the  classical  languages,  without  being  able 
to  find  the  reasons.  He  even  to  some  extent  anticipated  the 
great  discovery  which  after  its  formulator  has  been  called 
Grimm's  Law^  by  pointing  out  *^a  certain  regularity  of  con- 
sonant shift"  in  the  Teutonic  languages. 

The  monumental  work  of  Ihre  and  the  crowning  effort 
of  his  life  was  prepared  between  the  years  1750-1759.  This 
Glossarium  suiogothicum,  published  at  the  expense  of  the 
government,  is  the  best  Swedish  dictionary  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  Ihre  by  his  severe  critical  method  kills 
the  wild  etymologies  of  the  **Rudbeckian  philology,"  turning 
to  Old  Swedish  for  the  derivations,  and,  where  this  gav»* 
no  satisfaction,  to  the  Old  Icelandic,  **  because  this  language 
nine  hundred  years  ago  was  separated  from  our  own  anr* 
has  remained  undisturbed  by  foreign  influence."  From  the 
Old  Northern  dialects  he  turned  to  Old  High  German,  Old 
English  and  Gothic,  the  last  mentioned  of  which  he  con- 
sidered the  mother  of  the  Teutonic  languages.  Many  of 
Ihre's  etymologies  have  not  been  able  to  withstand  the 
scrutiny  of  later  criticism,  but  his  great  etymological  dic- 
tionary is  the  product  of  versatile  knowledge  and  unusual 
insight:-  and  has  not  only  exerted  a  profound  influence  upon 
his  own  period  but  also  served  as  a  model  for  later  epochs 
of  philological  research. 


CHAPTER  XV 

Qustavian  Period — Oustavus  IIL  and  Gustavus  IV. 

Adolphus 

GUSTAVUS  III.,  with  his  brilliant  endowmentj  ono 
of  the  most  illustrious,  and,  in  spite  of  his  glaring 
faults,  one  of  the  most  beloved,  of  Swedish  mon- 
archs,  was  the  first  king  since  Charles  XII,  who  was  bom 
in  Sweden.  For  this  very  reason,  and  on  account  of  his 
amiable  and  charming  disposition,  he  had  won  for  himself 
the  sympathy  of  the  people  even  before  his  succession  to  the 
throne.  This  nephew  of  Frederic  the  Great  of  Prussia  had 
inherited  the  genius,  ambition  and  pride  of  his  gifted  mother, 
all  enlarged  and  intensified,  and  the  gentleness  and  good 
nature  of  his  father^  He  was  in  every  particular  a  child 
of  his  time,  and  every  inch  a  king.  Gustavus  was  decidedly 
French  in  education,  taste  and  superficialityj  but  had  by  his 
first  teacher  Dalin  been  inspired  with  a  deep  love  of  his 
country,  its  history,  language  and  traditions.  He  handled 
the  Swedish  and  French  languages  with  equal  skill,  and 
a  more  eloquent  monarch  has  never  graced  a  throne.  He 
was  passionately  fond  of  theatricals  and  impressive  cere- 
mony, and,  Hke  his  mother  and  illustrious  imcle,  he  sur- 
rounded himself  with  men  of  genius.  Gustavus  was  be- 
trothed to  Princess  Sophie  Magdalene  of  Denmark  when 
only  four  years  of  age,  and  married  her  when  twenty.     This 


544  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

union  was  arranged  by  the  Riksdag,  contrary  to  the  wish 
of  Gustavus's  parentSo  Gustavus  appeared  at  first  to  be 
deeply  in  love  with  the  gentle  and  unpretentious  princess, 
but  she  soon  found  herself  as  neglected  by  her  consort  as 
she  was  detested  by  his  mothero  The  crown  prince  early 
began  to  hate  the  form  of  government  which  had  brought 
so  much  humiliation  to  his  parents^  This  absolutism  of  the 
Riksdag,  which  could  be  bought  and  sold  through  bribery 
by  foreign  powers,  he  considered  dangerous  to  the  inde- 
pendence and  welfare  of  the  country,  and  was  resolved  to 
change  the  balance  of  power  to  the  hands  of  the  king, 
of  whose  dignity  and  impoi*tance  he  held  an  exalted  opinion. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  Gustavus  was  m  France, 
returning  with  the  agreement  of  a  secret  alliance.  At  the 
Riksdag  of  1771.  where  the  Caps  once  more  came  into 
power-  Gustavus  III.  signed  a  pledge  with  new  restrictions 
of  the  royal  authority.  But  while  the  king  officially  seemed 
to  desire  a  pacification  of  both  parties,  and  his  time  was 
principally  occupied  with  theatricals,  embroideries  and  cos- 
tumes, he  was  secretly  arranging  a  conspiracy-  He  was 
crowned  in  May.  1772,  and  in  August  the  news  of  a  revolt 
in  Scania,  led  by  John  Christian  Toll,  reached  the  capital. 
The  king  feigned  surprise,  but  waited  for  similar  news  from 
Finland,  whence  Jacob  Magnus  Sprengtporten  was  to  bring 
troops  to  Stockholm.  As  Sprengtporten's  movements  were 
somewhat  delayed,  the  king  had  to  take  action  himsdf. 
In  the  morning  of  August  19th  he  entered  the  officers'  hall 
of  the  body-guards,  where  he  delivered  a  patriotic  address, 
asking  the  officers  to  follow  him  as  their  ancestors  had  fol- 
lowed Gustavus  Vasa  and  Gustavus  Adolphus.  He  was 
greeted  with  an  enthusiasm  which  soon  spread  throughout 
the  capital,  assuring  the  king  of  perfect  loyalty.     The  state 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  345 

councillors  were  quickly  arrested  and  order  given  that  no  one 
should  be  allowed  to  leave  the  capital.  The  Riksdag  was 
called  together  August  21st,  and  addressed  by  the  king  in 
an  eloquent  speech  which  gave  a  striking  view  of  the  situa- 
tion and  its  perils.  He  declared  that  he  was  not  going  to 
touch  liberty,  only  to  abolish  misrule  by  the  establishment 
of  a  firm  administration.  Then  was  read  the  proposition 
for  a  constitution  which  the  king  had  prepared.  The  king 
alone  was  to  be  the  executive,  appointing  higher  ofificials 
and  councillors,  making  alliances  with  foreign  powers,  but 
not  commencing  any  war  of  attack  without  the  consent  of 
the  Riksdag.  The  state  council  was  to  consist  of  seventeen 
members  with  deliberative,  but  no  executive,  power.  The 
Riksdag  was  to  convene  at  the  order  of  the  king,  taxation 
and  legislation  to  be  decided  on  by  the  king  and  Riksdag 
in  common.  The  judicial  power  of  all  committees  was  to  be 
abohshed.  The  Riksdag  accepted  the  royal  propositions, 
and  one  of  the  most  smoothly  and  skilfully  managed  coups 
d^etat  ever  attempted  was  accomplished,  much  to  the  dis- 
may of  Russia,  Prussia  and  Denmark.  During  half  a  score 
of  years  the  country  enjoyed  a  happy  peace,  the  king  win- 
ning the  love  of  his  people  and  being  active  in  administra- 
tive improvements. 

Gustavus  III.  was  intensely  interested  in  literature  and 
art,  and  ci  writer  of  considerable  ability,  composing 
dramatic  works  of  French  pattern  but  with  patriotic  sub- 
jects. In  his  best  creations  he  is  influenced  by  Shakespeare. 
Among  the  poets  whom  he  encouraged  were  Kellgren,  Leo- 
pold, Creutz,  Gyllenborg,  Oxenstierna,  Adlerbeth,  the  cre- 
ators of  a  classical  school  of  Swedish  poetry  and  drama, 
influenced  by  the  contemporary  French  writers.  Above 
these  towers  Charles  Michael  Bellman,  who,  with  his  com- 


iJ46  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

poeite  and  rich  endowment,  became  the  first  great  national 
poet,  and  of  an  originality  as  remarkable  as  that  of  any 
genius  in  the  literature  of  the  world.  The  humor  intro- 
duced into  Swedish  literature  through  the  contact  with  the 
songs  of  the  Edda,  in  Bellman  reaches  its  perfection,  while 
his  poetry  in  exquisite  and  triumphant  grace  of  form  out- 
rivals that  of  his  classical  contemporaries.  His  poems  were 
almost  all  produced  under  the  inspiration  of  the  moment, 
even  if  later  remodelled,  and  sung  to  the  lute  to  melo- 
dies of  the  day,  or  of  his  own  composition.  His  impres- 
sionistic power  of  description  leads  the  thought  to  the  mod- 
ern artists,  while  his  ambition  to  unite  the  arts  of  poetry, 
music  and  plastics  makes  him  a  precursor  of  Neo-Romanti- 
cism.  There  is  not  one  accent  of  chauvinism,  not  even  a 
note  of  patriotism,  in  his  songs,  yet  he  is  the  most  beloved 
of  Swedish  poets,  recognized  as  the  highest  exponent  of  the 
lyrico-rhetorical  temperament  of  his  people,  a  mixture  of 
melancholy  humor  and  exuberant  joy  in  a  graceful  yet 
stately  form.  Anne  Marie  Lenngren  was  a  highly  talented 
poetess,  who  preserves  the  classic  form  for  her  verse,  in 
which  she  ridicules  the  faults  and  vices  of  her  period.  The 
rild  and  Lidner  were  men  of  great  genius,  but  of  somewhat 
bizarre  and  neglected  literary  form,  influenced  by  contem- 
porary Romanticism  in  Germany.  Sweden  continues  to 
add  a  number  of  names  to  the  galaxy  of  men  distinguished 
in  the  service  of  natural  science,  those  of  Bergman  and 
Scheele,  the  founders  of  modern  chemistry,  being  the  most 
renowned.  To  the  Academy  of  Science  and  Academy  of 
Art,  established  during  the  Period  of  Liberty,  Gustavus 
added  a  Swedish  Academy  and  a  National  Theatre  for  the 
encouragement  of  poetry,  eloquence,  music  and  drama. 
It  is  during  this  period  that  the  Swedish  language  devel- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  347 

oped  the  beauty  and  plasticity  for  which  it  holds  the  first 
rank  among  Teutonic  dialects,  and  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  musical  languages  of  the  world.  Of  artists,  the  paint- 
ers Hoerberg,  Hillestroem  and  Roslin  rose  to  great  conti- 
nental fame,  while  Sergei,  through  the  genius  and  tenden- 
cies of  his  works  one  of  the  most  remarkable  sculptors  of 
modern  times,  won  renown  for  his  name,  but  hardly  the 
very  highest  perfection  within  his  possibilities.  His  statue 
of  Gustavus  III.  is  the  finest  monument  of  Stockholm. 

Sweden,  so  rich  in  great  poets,  artists  and  scientists, 
is  poor  in  philosophers,  content  with  the  systems  of  thinkers 
in  more  favored  countries.  Swedenborg  is  an  important 
exception  to  this  rule.  Not  satisfied  with  an  original  system, 
with  pure  reason  as  the  fundamental  principle,  he  divined  a 
system  in  which  philosophy  and  religion  are  inseparably 
united.  Kant,  when  made  acquainted  with  Swedenborg's 
earlier  system,  was  utterly  astonished,  expressing  fear  that 
he  himself  had  been  an  object  of  thought-transference, 
when  writing  his  celebrated  work,  **Kritik  der  reinen  Ver- 
nunft.*'  The  system  of  Descartes  was  followed  by  Swedish 
philosophers  of  the  Carolinian  epoch.  During  the  Period 
of  Liberty  and  the  reign  of  Gustavus  III.,  Locke,  Voltaire 
and  Diderot  were  supreme.  At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Kant  began  to  exert  great  influence,  Benjamin 
Hceijer  being  his  talented  and  individualistic  disciple,  and 
enjoying  the  reputation  of  having  been  Sweden's  greatest 
original  thinker.  Charles  August  Ehrensverd,  an  able  war- 
rior and  statesman  of  the  Gustavian  epoch,  devised  an 
attractive  and  novel,  although  slightly  dilettantic,  system 
of  his  own,  the  Philosophy  of  Fine  Arts. 

The  suspicions  that  Gustavus  III.  was  not  satisfied  with 
the  share  of  power  which  he  obtained  in  1772,  and  that  he 


348  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

was  anxious  to  gain  fame  by  the  means  of  war,  were  found 
to  be  justified.  In  1786  he  called  a  Riksdag,  at  which  most 
of  his  propositions,  to  his  great  surprise,  were  stubbornly 
opposed.  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  was  intriguing  with  the 
Finnish  nobles  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  independ- 
ence of  Finland  under  Russian  protection.  But  she  was 
careful  not  to  commence  hostilities.  Attempts  made  by 
Gustavus  III.  to  bring  the  Norwegian  people  in  revolt 
against  Denmark  failed.  And  so  Gustavus,  who  had  no 
authority  to  begin  a  war  of  attack,  arranged  for  a  simulated 
Russian  assault  on  the  Finnish  boundary,  executed  by  Fin- 
nish peasants  in  disguise.  He  declared  war  on  Russia,  in 
June,  1788,  although  nobody  was  found  willing  to  believe 
in  the  feigned  cause  of  it.  The  actual  hostilities  were 
opened  by  a  brilliant  naval  battle  at  Hogland,  fought  with 
success  by  the  Swedish  fleet  under  command  .  of  Prince 
Charles,  the  brother  of  the  king,  against  the  Russians. 
The  king  had  arrived  in  Finland  resolved  to  attack  St. 
Petersburg,  which  plan  he  was  obliged  to  change.  All 
further  operations  came  to  a  sudden  standstill  through 
mutiny  among  the  Finnish  ofl&cers  in  the  royal  camp  at 
Anjala,  113  of  them  signing  a  document  in  which  they 
pledged  themselves  to  force  the  king  to  make  peace  and  to 
convoke  the  Riksdag.  Another  document  offering  peace 
and  a  union  of  Finland  to  Russia  was  despatched  to  St. 
Petersburg  with  Jaegerhorn,  one  of  the  leaders.  The  offi- 
cers received  a  favorable  answer  from  Russia,  which 
was  handed  to  the  king,  and  the  whole  army  was  made 
acquainted  with  the  proceedings.  The  king  found  him- 
self in  a  most  perilous  position,  out  of  which  he  was 
saved  as  by  a  miracle.  Denmark  declared  war,  and  the 
king  hastened  to  embrace  the  opportunity  to  leave  with 


mSTORY    OF   SWEDEN  ^4& 

Honor   the   trap   in   which   his    life   and    liberty  were  in 
danger. 

Gustavus  III.  sent  word  to  several  provinces,  asking  the 
inhabitants  to  rise  in  defence  of  their  country.  He  went 
himself  to  Dalecarlia,  where  he  addressed  the  peasants  when 
coming  from  church,  as  had  Gustavus  Vasa,  Everywhere 
the  population  rose  in  arms.  The  king  hastened  to  Gothen^ 
burg,  which  was  threatened  by  the  Danes,  and  had  the  city 
strongly  fortified.  England  and  Prussia  sided  with  Sweden, 
and  the  Danes  found  it  best  to  retire  from  Swedish  terri- 
tory. 

Gustavus  had  won  the  game.  Now  for  the  stakes*  He 
called  a  Riksdag  in  1789.  Through  his  personal  courage 
and  patriotism,  Gustavus  III.  had  recaptured  the  love  of 
his  people.  The  nobility  was  hated  and  despised  on  account 
of  its  responsibility  for  the  mutiny  at  Anjala  and  for  its 
intrigues  with  Russia.  Gustavus  III,  consequently  stood 
exceedingly  well  with  the  three  lower  Estates  of  the  Riks- 
dag, but  lost  their  respect  through  the  many  violations  of 
the  law  which  he  committed  in  forcing  upon  the  Riksdag 
a  new  constitution  which  made  him  a  ruler  with  almost 
absolute  power.  The  nobility  stubbornly  refused  to  accept 
any  change  in  the  constitution.  There  were  many  stormy 
scenes,  both  among  the  nobles  and  in  the  presence  of  the 
king,  who  also  paid  a  visit  to  the  Riddarhus,  which  he  left 
with  the  statement  that  the  nobles  were  willing  to  subscribe, 
the  latter  loudly  protesting.  Axel  von  Fersen  the  Elder  and 
several  other  aristocratic  leaders  were  held  in  a  prolonged 
arrest.  Archbishop  Troil  told  the  king  that  he  did  not  wish 
to  be  the  first  archbishop  after  Gustavus  TroMe  to  sell  the 
liberty  of  his  country,  and  begged  to  be  excused  from  being 
present  at  the  deliberations.     The  poet  and  royal  favorite 


#60  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Adlerbeth,  himself  a  nobleman,  pleaded  in  the  Riksdag  the 
right  of  his  Estate  to  take  action  on  the  royal  propositions. 
These  were  in  private  signed  by  the  speakers  of  the  four 
Estates  and  pronounced  by  the  government  as  accepted,  and 
were  called  an  *'Act  of  Union  and  Security."  This  new 
constitution  gave  almost  absolute  power  to  the  king.  The 
state  council  was  once  more,  and  forever,  swept  away  and 
not  even  mentioned  in  the  constitution.  It  was  divided  into 
a  supreme  court  and  a  department  for  "the  preparation 
of  public  affairs.'*  By  taking  half  of  their  members  only 
from  the  nobility,  the  greatest  privilege  of  that  class  was 
annulled.  To  the  peasants  was  extended  the  privilege  of 
buying  land  originally  belonging  to  the  nobility.  By  hard 
pressure,  and  in  opposition  to  the  nobles,  the  king  forced  the 
Riksdag  to  take  the  responsibility  for  the  state  debt,  which 
had  increased  considerably^ 

Gustavus  III,  opened  the  Riksdag  as  the  most  popular 
man  of  the  country.  He  closed  it  as  an  absolute  sovereign 
who  had  lost  the  love  of  his  people  and  aroused  the  revenge- 
ful hatred  of  the  nobility,  Gustavus  III.  was  now  enabled 
to  continue  the  Russian  war  at  will.  His  sub-commander 
Stedingk  won  a  victory  over  the  Russians  at  Porosalmi, 
the  latter  being  led  by  Sprengtporten,  the  former  supporter 
of  Gustavus  III.,  now  a  soldier  of  Empress  Catherine.  He 
was  killed  in  the  battle.  Prince  Charles  won  a  victory  at 
CEland,  but  was  by  negligence  of  his  sub-commander  de- 
tained from  reaping  its  benefits.  Charles  August  Ehren- 
Bverd  defeated  a  superior  Russian  naval  force  at  Svensksund 
with  the  '* Skerry  Fleet,"  the  creation  of  his  father,  Augus- 
tinus  Ehrensverd.  At  the  order  of  the  king,  he  then  met 
a  still  larger  fleet  and  was  defeated.  Dissatisfied  with  the 
king  and  the  result,  the  valiant  hero  and  philosopher  made 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN-  351 

his  report  in  the  following  laconic  phrase;  **Toiir  majesty 
has  no  longer  any  Skerry  Fleet,"  and  resigned  from  his 
position  as  admiral-general.  In  the  following  year,  1780, 
the  oomhined  naval  forces  of  Sweden  were  shut  up  by  the 
Russian  fleet  in  the  bay  of  Viborg,  and  seemed  doomed  to 
destruction.  But  the  king  gave  orders  that  all  the  ships 
should  force  a  passage,  and  this  heroic  effort  was  success- 
fully made,  through  the  lines  of  colossal  Russian  warships 
chained  together.  The  Russian  losses  were  great,  and  also 
those  of  the  Swedes,  on  account  of  an  explosion  on  board  one 
of  the  ships.  The  Russians  were  anxious  to  gain  the  vic- 
tory that  escaped  them  at  Viborg,  and  decided  on  July  9th, 
the  day  of  Empress  Catherine's  coronation,  as  an  appro- 
priate date.  The  battle  was  fought  at  Svensksund,  and 
turned  into  a  humiliating  defeat,  the  Russians  losing  53 
ships,  643  cannon  and  14,000  men,  and  the  imperial  flag 
of  state;  twenty-six  of  these  ships  were  entered  in  the 
Swedish  navy.  Peace  was  made  at  Va^rselsB  a  month  later. 
No  change  of  territory  was  involved,  but  an  end  was  put  to 
Russian  intrigues,  and  Sweden  had  once  more  and  forever 
demonstrated  her  power  of  taking  care  of  her  independence. 
The  revolution  in  France  made  a  deep  impression  upon 
the  factions  which  in  Sweden  were  secretly  continuing  their 
struggle.  The  nobility,  in  their  aristocratic  republicanism, 
sided  with  the  revolutionists^  while  the  king,  an  intimate 
friend  of  Louis  XVI,  ^  tried  to  save  the  monarchy.  Gus- 
tavus  IIIo  left  Sweden  in  the  sunmier  of  1791,  in  order  to 
receive  Lo^  XVI.  and  his  family  at  the  frontier^  while 
Count  And.  Ton  Fersen  the  Younger^  a,  son  of  the  old  aris- 
tocratic paity  mder  who  had  taken  part  with  distinction 
in  the  Amencan  revolutionary  war,  was  very  near  to  sav- 
ing  the  royal  family  through  a  flight  from  Paris.     King 


M8  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Gustavus  III.  waited  in  vain  for  the  royal  fugitives,  but 
commenced  active  operations  for  the  forming  of  an  alliance 
between  Sweden,  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria  and  Spain 
against  republican  France.  Sweden  and  Russia  made  a 
treaty  of  mutual  defence,  but  the  negotiations  for  a  gen- 
eral alliance  were  not  at  a  favorable  point  when  Gustavus 
III.  himself  fell  by  the  aristocratic  republicans  of  his  own 
country. 

A  conspiracy  between  the  nobles  had  been  formed,  the 
majority  being  men  of  the  highest  station.  Jacob  John 
Anckarstrom,  a  retired  officer,  was  found  willing  to  commit 
the  deed  of  killing  the  hated  despot.  After  several  unsuc- 
cessful attempts,  the  act  was  accomplished  at  a  mask  ball 
in  the  Royal  Opera,  the  king  being  shot  through  the  hip. 
All  of  the  accomplices  present  were  arrested,  and,  much 
to  their  disappointment,  the  king  not  dying  instantly,  their 
plan  for  a  revolution  was  thus  frustrated.  Gustavus  III. 
was  shot  March  16,  1792,  and  died  March  26,  1792,  suffer- 
ing his  fate  with  fortitude  and  great  presence  of  mind.  He 
appointed  his  brother  Charles  and  his  favorite,  Charles  Gus- 
tavus Armfelt,  members  of  the  government  during  the 
minority  of  his  son,  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

The  devotion  of  his  country  returned  to  Gustavus  III. 
at  his  deathbed,  never  to  leave  him.  In  spite  of  his  super- 
ficiality, violation  of  the  law,  disregard  for  a  constitutional 
government,  and  adventurous  and  expensive  wars,  solid 
reasons  remain  to  love  and  respect  his  memory.  His  noble 
patriotism,  frank  heroism,  brilliant  genius  and  great  gen- 
erosity are  worthy  of  high  praise.  His  revolution  of  1789 
brought  disastrous  consequences,  but  he  furthered  the 
progress  of  democracy  by  annihilation  of  the  aristocratic 
republic  and   saved   his  country   from    the  tragic  fate  of 


HISTORY  OF  SWEDEN  353 

Poland.  Even  if  the  Period  of  Liberty  is  to  be  created 
for  a  great  deal  of  the  cultural  development  during  his 
reign,  Gustavus  has  a  large  share  therein,  and  Bsaias 
T^fn6r  is  right  in  his  eulogy  when  he  says: 

"There  rests  o'er  Gustav's  days  a  golden  shimmer. 
Fantastic,  foreign,  frivolous,  if  you  please; 
But  why  complain  when  sunshine  caused  the  glamour? 
Where  stood  we  now  if  it  were  not  for  these? 
All  culture  on  an  unfree  ground  is  builded. 
And  barbarous  once  the  base  of  patriotism  true; 
But  wit  was  planted,  iron-hard  language  welded. 
The  song  was  raised,  life  more  enjoyed  and  shielded. 
And  what  Gustaviau  was,  is,  therefore,  Swedish  too." 

In  the  mixture  of  patriotism  and  unreserved  cosmopoli- 
tanism, true  genius  and  superficiality,  earnestness  and  reck* 
lessness  in  the  character  of  Gustavus  III.,  the  Swedes  have 
recognized  peculiarities  of  their  own  national  temperament, 
for  which  they  are  tempted  to  love  him  as  dearly,  although 
not  considering  him  to  be  as  great,  as  his  two  predecessors 
and  namesakes  on  the  Swedish  throne.  By  his  eloquence, 
wit  and  amiability,  his  personality  charmed  even  his  ene- 
mies. In  contrast  to  the  sombre  autocrats  of  the  Barocoo 
period,  Gustavus  III.  was  a  typical  Rococo  monarch,  and 
he  tried  to  give  the  charms  and  grace  of  the  Rococo  epoch 
to  his  surroundings.  In  appearance,  he  was  of  middle  size, 
slender  and  graceful,  with  a  face  which  bespoke  genius,  and 
eyes  of  unusual  size  and  brilliancy. 

Gustavus  IV.  Adolphus  was  a  boy  of  thirteen  at  the 
death  of  his  father.  His  uncle,  Prince  Charles,  was  regent 
in  name,  but  Baron  Reuterholm,  the  latter's  favorite,  was 
the  real  head  of  the  government.  Compared  to  the  eccen- 
tric but  energetic,  generous  and  liberal  despotism  of  Gus- 
tavus III.,  Reuterholm's  was  a  rule  of  pettiness,  incapa- 


8M  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

bility,  revenge  and  hypocrisy.  Prince  Charles  was  a  good 
soldier,  but  early  lost  all  energy  through  dissipation  and 
a  natural  tendency  to  mysticism,  secrecy  and  simulation. 
Reuterholm  was  a  good  worker,  but  of  no  ability  as  a  states- 
man, sharing  and  increasing  the  love  of  mysticism  and 
superstition  characteristic  of  his  master.  The  new  policy 
was  to  estrange  the  friends  and  favorites  of  Gustavus  III. 
as  much  as  possible,  they  all  being  sent  away  under  various 
pretexts.  Prince  Charles  had  from  the  start  declared  in- 
valid the  postscript  of  the  king's  will,  according  to  which 
Count  Armfelt  was  to  take  part  in  the  government.  Later 
a  conspiracy,  with  Armfelt  as  the  leader,  was  detected, 
when  he,  who  was  abroad  and  later  entered  Russian  service, 
was  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  property,  rank  and  life. 
A  young  woman,  Lady  Madelaine  Rudenschiold,  who  was 
one  of  the  conspirators,  was  punished  by  being  exhibited 
to  the  mob  on  the  place  of  execution  and  afterward  im- 
prisoned. 

Prince  Charles  was  criticised  for  the  leniency  shown 
toward  his  brother's  murderers,  perhaps  without  justice, 
for  the  dying  king  had  pleaded  clemency  in  their  behalf. 
Only  Anckarstrom  was  executed,  the  other  conspirators 
all  receiving  surprisingly  mild  sentences.  This  was  con- 
trasted to  the  petty  and  revengeful  hatred  shown  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  new  government,  and  one  now  recalled  the 
fact  that  Gustavus  III.  in  his  last  moments  had  refused 
to  see  the  prince.  That  Charles  also  had  aspirations  of  his 
own  seems  evident  from  the  fact  that  he  had  the  young 
king  examined  by  physicians,  raising  doubt  as  to  his  phys- 
ical and  mental  fitness  to  ever  take  a  hand  in  the  govern- 
ment. 

Reuterholm  made  himself  hated  and  ridiculous  by  his 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  355 

pettiness.  Thus  restrictions  were  placed  on  extravagance 
in  food  and  clothing,  the  use  of  coffee  for  some  time  being 
entirely  prohibited.  The  Swedish  Academy  was  disbanded 
because  it  did  not  make  Reuterholm  a  member.  The  lib- 
erty of  the  press  was  extended  and  then  suddenly  restricted. 
Thorild,  the  writer  and  poet,  was  exiled  for  agitation 
against  the  old  division  of  the  Riksdag  into  four  houses, 
*' because  its  four  Estates  always  have  been  bringing  about 
one  unsettled  state."  Characteristic  of  the  opinion  of  Reu- 
terholm's  administration  are  the  words  which  the  warrior 
and  philosopher,  Charles  August  Ehrensverd,  gave  him  in 
the  course  of  a  quarrel  between  the  two:  "Monsieur  is  am- 
bitious to  govern,  but  monsieur  does  not  know  how."  The 
best  things  accomplished  during  this  period  were  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  military  academy  at  Carlberg,  and  improve- 
ments of  the  Bible  translation  and  the  ritual  and  hymn-book 
of  the  church. 

The  attitude  toward  France  was  changed  with  the 
change  of  government,  Sweden  being  the  first  power  to 
recognize  the  French  republic.  With  that  country  and 
Denmark  close  intimacy  was  formed,  which  enraged  Russia 
and  England.  In  order  to  pacify  the  empress,  old  negotia- 
tions for  a  marriage  between  King  Gustavus  Adolphus  and 
Alexandra,  a  niece  of  Empress  Catherine  II.,  were  reopened 
and  a  decision  reached.  The  king  left  for  St.  Petersburg. 
When  the  great  ceremony  was  to  take  place,  the  empress 
sat  there  waiting  with  her  brilliant  court  for  several  hours. 
tTo  Gustavus  Adolphus  appeared.  In  the  last  moment  he 
had  been  asked  by  a  priest  to  grant  his  future  consort, 
Alexandra,  liberty  to  practice  her  Greek  Catholic  faith  in 
public,  which  he  refused  to  do,  thus  dropping  the  whole 
matter.     The  indignant  empress  was  suddenly  taken  ill  and 


866  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

died  a  few  weeks  later.  Soon  afterward  the  king  married 
the  beautiful  princess  Frederica  of  Bade. 

Gustavus  IV.  Adolphus  was  declared  of  age  and  took 
charge  of  the  government  when  eighteen  (in  1796).  Reuter- 
holm  was  dismissed,  and  Prince  Charles  retired.  The  king 
surrounded  himself  with  the  friends  of  his  father,  Armfelt 
and  Toll  being  recalled,  the  latter  taking  excellent  care  of 
foreign  affairs,  as  far  as  his  authority  went.  But  Gustavus 
IV,  ruled  alone,  without  favorites  or  influential  advisers. 
This  was  most  unfortunate,  for  he  was  entirely  without  the 
g^fts  of  a  regent.  He  was  a  lover  of  order,  economy,  jus- 
tice and  pure  morals,  but  through  lack  of  mental  and  phys- 
ical strength  his  good  qualities  were  misdirected.  His 
father's  tragic  fate  had  a  sinister  influence  upon  his  mind, 
the  equilibrium  of  which  was  shaken  also  by  the  outrages 
of  the  revolutionists  in  France.  Of  a  morbid  sensibility, 
and  without  inclination  to  confide  in  any  one,  his  religious 
mysticism  led  him  into  a  state  close  to  insanity.  He  im- 
agined himself  to  be  a  reincarnation  of  Charles  XII.,  while 
in  Napoleon  he  recognized  the  monster  of  the  Apocalypse, 
which  he  himself  was  sent  to  fight  and  conquer. 

Gustavus  IVo  went  to  an  extreme  in  his  fear  of  liberal 
movements,  placing  severe  censorship  on  the  periodical 
press,  book  market  and  universities.  Benjamin  Hoeijer, 
the  great  philosopher,  for  some  time  left  his  chair  at  Upsala 
and  the  country.  A  man  who  was  resolved  to  **go  even 
to  the  doors  of  hell  in  search  of  truth"  could  not  be  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  bigot  despot.  Hard  times,  produced  by 
failure  of  crops  and  fisheries,  and  by  maritime  losses  during 
the  war  between  England  and  France,  threw  added  um- 
brage over  the  reign  of  Gustavus  IV.  He  convoked  a 
Riksdag,  in  1800.  in  order  to  raise  money  to  cover  the  debts 


HISTORy    OF    SWEDEN  357 

involved  by  his  predecessor.  He  never  repeated  the  experi- 
ment. The  nobles  sanctioned  the  absolute  rule,  but  stormy 
sessions  ensued  over  the  royal  propositions,  six  nobles  re- 
signing from  titles  and  privileges,  six  others  their  seats 
in  the  Riksdag.  The  peasants,  almost  as  unyielding,  were 
pacified  by  Toll.  By  his  own  authority,  the  king  mort- 
gaged the  Swedish  city  of  Wismar,  in  Mecklenburg,  to  the 
ruler  of  said  duchy  for  a  period  of  one  hundred  years,  in 
receipt  for  a  sum  of  some  two  million  dollars. 

There  was  no  question  in  which  the  insanity  of  the  king 
became  more  apparent  or  disastrous  than  in  his  foreign 
policy.  An  alliance  of  armed  neutrality  between  Sweden, 
Russia  and  Denmark  came  to  naught  through  the  in- 
activity of  Gustavus  IV.,  and  he  stubbornly  refused  to 
accept  the  repeated  offers  of  Napoleon  of  an  alliance  with 
France  in  the  combat  with  the  powers.  Things  took  a 
sinister  aspect  when  an  intimate  alliance  was  effected  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  Alexander  of  Russia,  in  1807.  Napo- 
leon had  lost  patience  with  the  lunatic  king,  and  tried  to 
call  forth  a  catastrophe  by  urging  Alexander  to  capture 
Finland,  which  he  at  first  was  unwilling  to  do.  The  French 
invaded  Swedish  Pomerania,  and  Toll  was  able  to  save  the 
little  Swedish  army  of  10,000  only  by  means  of  a  most  skil- 
ful diplomacy.  Denmark,  attacked  by  England,  declared 
war  against  Sweden.  Gustavus  IV.  made  great  prepara- 
tions, sending  Armfelt  with  one  army  to  the  Norwegian 
frontier  and  Toll  with  another  to  Scania.  The  regular 
army  counted  100,000  men,  and  a  great  force  of  militia  was 
organized.  But  through  gross  incapability  of  the  govern- 
ment the  majority  of  troops  were  never  used,  the  militia 
suffering  immensely  through  neglect  and  hunger. 

Czar  Alexander  at  last  decided  to  capture  Finland.     He 


358  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

called  it  himself  an  act  of  bad  faith  and  treason  against  a 
relative  and  ally,  and  in  a  treacherous  way  he  carried  on  his 
preparations.  The  Swedish  ambassador  was  misled  as  to 
the  object  of  the  latter,  and  when  informed  received  exag- 
gerated accounts  as  to  the  force  which  was  to  invade  Fin- 
land. Gustavus  rV.  was  alarmed  and  gave  the  old  and 
incapable  field-marshal,  Klingspor,  appointed  to  command 
the  army  in  Finland,  directions  to  save  his  troops  in  the  best 
way  possible.  And  so  commenced,  in  February,  1808,  the 
war  which  after  a  heroic  struggle  was  to  separate  the  Finns 
from  their  Swedish  brethren.  Not  only  were  the  Finnish 
troops  possessed  of  the  noblest  patriotic  spirit,  but  they  had 
also  courageous  and  distinguished  commanders,  who,  if 
duly  supported  and  intrusted  with  more  authority,  would 
probably  have  been  able  to  ward  off  the  attack.  Conspic- 
uous among  the  latter  were  C.  J.  Adlercreutz,  bom  in  Fin- 
land, the  hero  of  Siikajoki,  Lappo  and  Oravais;  G.  C.  von 
Doebeln,  the  victor  of  Juntas,  and  J.  A.  Sandels,  the  hero 
of  Pulkkila,  Indensalmi  and  Virta,  all  three  of  them  veter- 
ans from  the  war  of  Gustavus  III. 

The  aged  General  Klercker  commanded  a  Finnish  army 
at  Tavastehus,  where  Klingspor  arrived  with  his  royal  orders, 
which  were  for  retreat  and  evacuation  of  the  country.  The 
troops  were  deprived  of  their  hopes  of  a  battle  and  forced 
to  make  a  retreat  of  nearly  600  miles,  suffering  from  cold 
and  hunger.  The  retreat  continued  without  interruption 
for  two  months,  until  the  army,  in  April,  found  itself  be- 
tween Brahestad  and  Uleoborg.  A  battle  was  fought  at 
Siikajoki,  April  18th,  the  sub-commander.  General  Adler- 
creutz, receiving  instructions  to  make  a  stand  against  the 
enemy  until  the  safety  of  the  army  supplies  could  be  in- 
sured.    After  five  hours  of  fighting,  the  Finns  won  a  glo- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  359 

rious  victory  over  the  Russians.  But  royal  orders  for  a 
continued  retreat  arrived,  and  the  Russians  took  possession 
of  Siikajoki. 

As  long  as  Sveaborg,  the  Gibraltar  of  the  North,  was 
safe,  the  final  outcome  of  the  struggle  must  remain  unde- 
cided. Sveaborg,  the  creation  of  Augustinus  Ehrensverd, 
is  situated  on  seven  islets  and  consists  of  several  strong 
works  partly  cut  out  of  the  rock  and  in  an  admirable  way 
protecting  and  supplementing  each  other.  The  fortress  was 
defended  by  6,000  men,  with  1,000  cannon  and  ample  pro- 
visions of  all  kinds ;  in  the  harbor  a  division  of  the  Swedish 
navy  was  at  anchor.  Olof  Cronstedt,  the  commander,  was 
dissatisfied  with  the  king  and  a  secret  supporter  of  Prince 
Charles.  His  sub-commander,  Jsegerhorn,  a  brother  of  the 
Jeader  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Anjala,  was  a  traitor,  probably 
in  understanding  with  the  Russians  even  before  the  war. 
A  little  army  of  4,000  Russians  under  the  command  of  Van 
Suchtelen  was  sent  against  Sveaborg.  This  force  was  too 
small  to  make  a  serious  attack;  it  was  not  able  to  capture 
any  of  the  fortifications;  the  naked  rocks  made  it  impossible 
to  build  any  earthworks.  What  the  Russians  could  not 
effect  by  force  they  accomplished  by  treachery,  winning 
over  the  commanding  officers  of  Sveaborg  through  threats 
and  promises.  "When  the  Swedish  and  Finnish  soldiers  saw 
the  queer  behavior  of  their  officers  they  planned  a  mutiny ; 
but  this  was  not  carried  out  on  account  of  lack  of  leader- 
ship. The  officers  tried  by  the  most  shameful  lies  to  pacify 
the  soldiers,  Jsegerhorn  taking  the  leading  part  in  these 
proceedings.  Sveaborg  surrendered  May  3d,  all  Swedes 
being  made  prisoners  of  war,  but  the  Finns  given  free 
leave.  When  the  troops  saw  the  small  force  of  Russians 
and  their  miserable  equipment   i;hey  were  enraged,  breaking 


360  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

their  weapons  and  tearing  their  banners  to  pieces.  Cron« 
stedt,  J^gerhorn  and  the  other  commanding  officers  became 
Russian  citizens,  and  received  high  outward  distinctions; 
but  by  both  Bussians  and  Finns  they  were  ever  treated  with 
cold  contempt  on  account  of  their  shameless  treason. 

With  the  fall  of  Sveaborg,  all  hope  of  saving  Finland 
was  lost.  In  the  summer  of  1808,  her  army  fought  several 
glorious  battles  under  the  conmiand  of  Adlercreutz,  Doebeln 
and  Sandels,  but  in  the  autumn  it  was  attacked  by  a  su- 
perior Russian  force  and  was  nearly  closed  in  between  Old 
Carleby  and  Vasa,  Gripenberg  stood  with  one  division  at 
Old  Carleby.  furthest  to  the  north,  Doebeln  lay  prostrated 
by  illness  at  New  Carlebyo  and  Adlercreutz  stood  with  the 
central  body  of  troops  at  Oravais,  about  twenty  miles  south 
from  the  latter  town.  The  Russian  army  attacked  the  force 
which  was  with  Doebeln,  resolved  to  cut  off  Adlercreutz 
from  a  retreats  One  attack  was  already  made  at  Juntas, 
near  New  Carleby.  when  Doebeln,  alarmed  by  the  news  and 
heedless  of  his  serious  illness,  was  seen  approaching.  His 
men  received  him  with  enthusiasm,  collected  their  scatter- 
ing forces  and  proved  victorious  over  the  attacking  enemy. 
The  Russians  retreated  and  Adlercreutz  was  saved. 

The  famous  battle  of  Oravais  was  fought  the  following 
day.  September  14tho  The  Swedish  army  v/as  arranged 
on  a  promontory  in  the  sea,  with  artillery  on  a  hill  to  the 
north,  close  to  which  a  detachment  of  the  regiment  of  Hel- 
singland  was  arranged  in  an  excellent  position.  Another 
detachment  of  the  same  regiment  was  by  a  little  brook  at 
the  south  base  of  the  promontory,  with  two  cannon,  under 
the  command  of  Count  William  von  Schwerin,  a  boy  of  six- 
teen years.  At  this  latter  point  the  battle  was  begun  at  five 
o'clock  in  the  morning.     The  Russians,  8,000  strong,  with 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  361 

twenty  cannon  and  commanded  by  Kamenski,  approached 
a  bridge  leading  over  the  brook.  The  400  Swedes  offered 
a  plucky  resistance  to  the  overwhelming  force.  Every  time 
the  bridge  was  filled  by  Russians,  Schwerin  swept  it  clear 
with  the  fire  from  his  two  cannon.  This  heroic  struggle 
was  kept  up  for  four  hours,  when  the  Helsings  had  no  more 
cartridges  for  their  guns  wherewith  to  support  the  artillery 
fire.  The  aide-de-camp  Biornstierna,  who  was  despatched 
thither  by  Adlercreutz,  saw  a  pitiable  sight.  Most  of  the 
officers  of  the  400  Swedes  were  killed  and  the  Russians  were 
storming  across  the  bridge  in  heavy  masses.  **Now, 
count,"  cried  Biornstiema,  "let  us  see  what  your  artillery 
amounts  tol"  Schwerin  let  the  Russians  approach  until 
only  fifty  feet  from  the  cannon,  when  he  ordered :  "Fire!" 
The  whole  first  hne  of  the  Russian  column  fell.  Schwerin 
gave  command  to  have  the  cannon  dragged  a  hundred 
yards  back  and  then  fired,  with  the  same  disastrous  effect. 
Thus  the  retreat  was  made  from  hill  to  hill.  At  last  the 
young  hero  received  a  mortal  wound  and  his  men  were 
surrounded  on  every  side^  With  a  final  effort  he  rose  to 
his  feet,  broke  through  the  lines  with  his  valiant  Helsings, 
and  died  in  the  midst  of  the  Swedish  troops. 

Adlercreutz  closely  watched  the  movements  of  the  Rus- 
sianSj  and  saw  an  opportunity  to  break  through  their  centre, 
which  was  successfully  done^  the  enemy  turning  into  flight. 
It  looked  like  an  overwhelming  defeat  for  the  Russians^ 
when  reinforcements  arrived  in  the  last  moment,  and  the 
exhausted  Swedes  had  to  stop  fighting  on  account  of  the 
darkness  of  the  night.  After  a  battle  of  fifteen  hours 
the  Swedes  had  lost  2,600  men,  or  nearly  one-third  of  their 
forces,  but  not  one  single  cannon  or  banner.  The  remnants 
o£  the  army  followed  the  *' royal  orders  ol  retreat,*'  crossing 

XX 16 


86a  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

the  Swedish  frontier.  Finland  was  lost  and  Sweden  proper 
in  danger. 

Only  a  revolution  could  save  the  country.  The  repub- 
lican aristocrats  were  the  ones  to  bring  it  about.  A  con- 
spiracy among  them  was  formed,  George  Adlersparre  and 
Ch.  H.  Anckarsverd  being  the  leaders.  When  it  was  ru- 
mored that  the  former,  with  the  western  army  division, 
of  which  he  was  the  commander,  had  left  the  Norwegian 
frontier  and  was  marching  on  Stockholm,  Gustavus  IV. 
sent  order  to  Toll  in  Scania  to  meet  him  with  his  troops, 
while  the  king  seemed  to  make  preparations  to  leave. 
Great  excitement  reigned  in  Stockholm,  and  General  Ad- 
lercreutz,  who  recently  had  been  received  in  the  capital 
with  enthusiasm,  resolved  to  take  action  in  preventing  the 
king*s  departure.  Accompanied  by  half  a  dozen  officers, 
he  entered  the  king's  bedchamber  the  morning  of  March 
13th,  and  took  possession  of  the  king  in  person,  who  made 
a  struggle  and  later  a  frustrated  attempt  to  escape.  The 
body-guards  were  persuaded  to  remain  inactive.  Prince 
Charles  was  proclaimed  regent.  Neither  this  fact  nor  the 
arrest  of  the  king  seemed  to  impress  the  population,  who 
received  the  news  with  ice-cold  reserve.  The  king  was 
conducted  to  Drottningholm,  and  later  to  Gripsholm,  where 
he  signed  the  document  of  abdication,  finally  to  be  escorted 
out  of  the  country  with  his  family,  never  to  return.  He 
died  in  St.  Gallon  in  1837. 

The  regent's  first  duty  was  to  ward  off  the  Russian  in- 
vasion of  Norrland  and  to  obtain  peace.  Napoleon  con- 
gratulated Sweden  on  having  got  rid  of  the  * 'supremacy 
of  a  fool,'*  and  sanctioned  an  armistice,  granted  by  his 
generaL  Marshal  Bernadotte,  who  commanded  an  army 
in  Seeland,  ready  to  attack  Sweden.     Peace  was  made  in 


HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN  863 

Paris,  Sweden  receiving  back  Pomerania  in  return  for  a 
promise  to  close  its  own  harbors  against  English  ships. 
Peace  with  Denmark  was  made,  with  no  change  of  territory 
on  either  side.  Attempts  to  rout  the  Russian  army  of  in- 
vasion at  Ratan,  in  West  Bothnia,  were  unsuccessful,  but 
it  withdrew  by  its  own  choice-  In  the  treaty  of  peace 
signed  at  Fredericshamn,  September  17,  1809,  Finland,  the 
archipelago  of  Aland  and  a  part  of  Swedish  Bothnia  were 
ceded  to  Russia,  the  rivers  of  Torne  and  Muonio  to  form  the 
boundary  line. 

Finland,  since  time  immemorial  in  intimate  relations 
with  Sweden,  from  whom  she  had  received  a  portion  of  her 
population,  had  for  600  years  with  her  mother  country 
formed  integral  parts  of  the  same  realm.  Sweden  had 
given  to  Finland  her  religion,  constitution,  laws,  privileges 
and  culture,  and  in  return  received  her  fidelity  and  a  host 
of  patriotic  men  eminent  in  affairs  of  war  and  peace.  To- 
gether the  Swedes  and  Finns  had  fought  on  the  battlefields 
of  Europe  for  the  political  grandeur  of  their  country  and 
the  religious  liberty  of  the  world.  United  to  Russia,  Finland 
preserved  her  institutions  and  privileges  unmolested,  and 
has,  up  to  date,  enjoyed  a  peaceful  development  greater  than 
would  perhaps  have  been  her  share  under  Swedish  rule. 
The  mother  country  was  after  this  great  loss  forced  to  con- 
centrate her  energy  on  a  more  solid  material  progress,  and 
has,  according  to  the  prophecy  of  Esaias  Tegner,  "within 
the  boundary  of  Sweden  reconquered  Finland."  The  Finns 
have  proved  themselves  to  be  one  of  the  most  talented  and 
energetic  of  nations.  Out  of  the  two  million  inhabitants 
of  Finland,  two-fifths  are  Swedish,  forming  the  nobility  and 
the  majority  of  the  cultured  classes.  Already  at  the  time 
of  the  separation  from  Sweden  was  bom  the  national  singer 


564  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

of  Finland,  John  Ludvig  Runeberg,  who  was  to  become  the 
greatest  poet  that  ever  wrote  in  the  Swedish  language  and 
one  of  the  greatest  that  ever  lived.  In  his  immortal  songs 
of  ''Finland's  latest  war,'*  the  two  countries  have  a  great 
common  inheritance,  Sweden  dreamed  of  reconquering 
Finland  as  soon  as  a  good  warrior  ascended  the  throne. 
This  hope  was  given  up  forever.  But  the  most  intimate 
sympathy  still  reigns  between  the  two  countries.  In  case 
that  harm  to  Finland  or  her  home -rule  should  be  done, 
and  her  independence  be  lost,  the  Swedish  people  would  not 
be  in  a  position  to  avenge  such  a  crime,  but  it  would  cause 
profound  grief  and  indignation,  and  would  be  considered 
a  shameful  act  of  violence  which  the  glory  of  no  peace 
emperor  would  suffice  to  cover. 

By  the  revolution  of  1789,  Sweden  for  a  second  time 
in  her  history  surrendered  her  liberty  into  the  hands  of  an 
energetic  and  patriotic  ruler  only  to  see  the  absolute  power 
utterly  abused  by  an  incompetent  successor.  The  loss  and 
suffering  were  almost  as  great  as  at  the  death  of  Charles 
XII.,  but  the  era  of  democracy,  peace  and  prosperity  so 
much  closer  at  hand.  It  was  the  spirit  of  the  aristocratio 
republicanism  which  caused  the  timely  downfall  of  abso- 
lute monarchy,  but  it  was  in  its  turn  destined  to  fall  for  the 
spirit  of  democracy  and  a  constitutional  government. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

7^  Constitutional  Monarchy — Charles  XIIL  and  the 
early  Bernadottes 

CHARLES  XIII.  succeeded  his  nephew.  He  waa 
chosen  king  after  a  new  constitution  had  been 
formulated  and  accepted  by  the  Riksdag  of  1809o 
Charles  XIII.  was  one  of  the  most  unsympathetic  of  Swed- 
ish kings,  but  his  reign  marks  a  new  period  in  Swedish 
history,  commencing  the  era  of  constitutional  government. 
The  new  constitution  to  which  the  king  subscribed  was  not 
a  radical  document;  it  only  reduced  the  power  of  the  king. 
Hans  JsBrta,  one  of  the  nobles  who  had  renounced  their 
privileges  and  been  active  in  the  conspiracy  against  Gus- 
tavus  IV.,  was  the  leading  spirit  of  the  constitutional  com- 
mittee and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  the  new 
cabinet.  Urgent  appeals  of  the  peasant  Estate  to  reduce 
or  abolish  the  privileges  of  the  upper  classes  were  of  no 
avail,  no  reform  of  state  or  society  yet  being  made.  A 
proposition  by  Count  von  Platen  to  introduce  a  compulsory 
militia  defence  was  voted  down.  This  Riksdag,  which 
lasted  for  a  year,  gave  fuller  liberties  to  the  press,  which  at 
once  used  it  to  voice  the  popular  dissatisfaction  with  the 
state  of  affairs.     It  was  necessary  to  select  an  heir  to  the 

throne,   as  the  old  king  was  childless.    Prince  Christian 

(365) 


36G  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

August  of  Augustenborg  being  chosen,  much  in  opposition 
to  the  nobles,  who  wanted  the  son  of  Gustavus  IV, 

The  prince  of  Augustenborg,  who  was  Danish  governor- 
general  of  Norway,  accepted,  and  was  adopted  by  the  king, 
changing  his  name  to  Charles  August.  He  was  a  plain, 
resolute  and  active  man,  unattractive  in  appearance,  but 
of  a  kind  and  noble  character.  Beloved  by  the  lower 
classes,  who  had  effected  his  selection,  he  was  treated  coldly 
by  the  Gustavian  aristocrats  and  by  Queen  Hedvig  Elisa- 
beth Charlotte  (Princess  of  Oldenburg),  who  all  favored  the 
selection  of  young  Gustavus,  the  son  of  exiled  Gustavus 
IV.  Reports  of  attempts  to  poison  the  heir-apparent  were 
in  circulation  even  before  he  arrived  in  Sweden.  Prince 
Charles  August  himself  often  said  that  he  thought  he  would 
die  young  by  some  stroke  of  paralysis,  but  he  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  the  warnings  given  him.  During  a  parade  of  troops 
at  Qvidinge,  in  Scania,  he  was  suddenly  seen  to  lose  con- 
sciousness and  dropped  dead  from  his  horse.  Peculiarities 
in  the  investigation  of  the  corpse,  led  by  his  physician, 
caused  a  second  post-mortem  examination,  in  which  the 
celebrated  chemist  Berzelius  took  part.  The  report  seemed 
in  favor  of  the  supposition  that  the  death  was  caused  by 
poison.  The  indignation  of  the  populace  knew  no  bounds. 
The  friends  of  the  government  tried  to  coin  political  money 
by  insinuating  that  the  Gustavians,  particularly  Count 
Axel  von  Fersen  the  Younger  and  his  sister.  Countess 
Piper,  were  the  responsible  parties.  At  the  burial  of  the 
dead  prince  the  mob  of  Stockholm  perpetrated  one  of  the 
most  hideous  murders  of  a  man  who  was  without  doubt 
innocent  When  Count  Fersen,  in  the  capacity  of  marshal 
of  the  realm,  was  to  open  the  procession,  he  was  warned 
not  to  do  so,  but  in  pride  and  sense  of  duty  resolved  to  meet 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  367 

his  fate.  Approaching  the  church  of  Riddarholm,  his  car- 
riage was  pelted  with  stones,  Fersen  himself  seeking  shelter 
in  various  places,  but  being  pursued  by  the  mob  and  killed. 
Fersen  had  sought  protection  in  a  body  of  troops,  whose 
officers  commanded  them  to  turn  him  over  to  the  mob. 
Thus  perished  a  man  who,  with  Curt  von  Stedingk,  had 
received  the  order  of  Cincinnatus  from  the  hands  of  George 
Washington,  and  who  once  was  so  near  saving  Louis  XVI. 
and  Marie  Antoinette  from  their  cruel  fate.  Fersen's 
brother  was  saved  only  by  mere  chance  and  his  sister  by  a 
flight  in  disguise.  The  mob  now  was  resolved  to  attack 
Countess  Piper,  who  was  thought  to  be  at  the  castle,  and 
the  queen  herself.  But  the  authorities,  who  had  brought 
shame  on  themselves  by  their  unwillingness  to  save  Fersen, 
interfered,  directing  a  few  shots  of  cannon  against  the  mob, 
dispersing  it  and  killing  many  (June  10,  1810). 

Sweden  was  once  more  without  an  heir-apparent  to  the 
throne.  Frederic,  the  brother  of  Charles  August,  was 
favored  by  the  king.  Frederic  VI.  of  Denmark  was  a 
candidate,  but  the  old  national  hatred  against  the  Danes 
was  still  too  strong  to  make  his  selection  possible.  A  count 
of  Oldenburg  was  also  mentioned  by  some.  The  Gustav- 
ians,  to  whom  Adlercreutz  belonged,  dared  not  openly  push 
their  candidate  of  the  old  royal  line.  The  patriotic  noble- 
men in  power  were  anxious  to  see  some  great  general 
chosen,  regardless  of  a  royal  pedigree,  who  could  recapture 
Finland.  King  Charles  sent  two  emissaries  to  Napoleon 
to  notify  him  of  the  death  of  Charles  August  and  the  selec- 
tion of  his  brother.  Then  one  of  the  most  original  and 
daring  schemes  ever  attempted  on  such  a  line  was  carried 
through  by  Count  Otto  Moerner,  one  of  the  emissaries.  On 
his  own  responsibility,  he  inquired  of  Marshal  Bernadotte, 


368  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

one  of  Napoleon's  ablest  generals,  if  he  would  consent  to 
become  heir-apparent  to  the  Swedish  throne.  Bernadotte 
consented,  and  the  consent  of  Kapoleon  was  obtained 
through  the  Swedish  ambassador  in  Paris.  Upon  his  re- 
turn, Moerner  was  ordered  to  leave  the  capital  by  the  min- 
ister of  state,  who  blamed  him  for  his  unauthorized  action. 
But  from  Upsala  Mcemer  led  an  eager  agitation,  with  the 
result  that  the  Riksdag  of  CErebro  selected  Bernadotte, 
who  was  represented  by  a  secret  emissaryo  Thus  the  two 
generals  who,  at  the  abdication  of  Gustavus  IV.,  were,  one 
in  Norway,  the  other  in  Denmark,  with  troops  ready  to 
attack  Sweden,  both  within  one  year  were  chosen  to  succeed 
Charles  XIII. 

Jean  Baptiste  Jules  Bernadotte  was  born  at  Pau,  in 
South  France,  in  1764.  The  son  of  a  lawyer,  he  worked 
himself  up  in  the  army  and  was  by  the  Revolution  enabled 
to  reach  the  high  military  stations  for  which  his  eminent 
genius  had  destined  him.  Next  to  Napoleon  the  ablest 
of  French  generals,  he  opposed  the  imperial  tendencies  of 
the  latter,  but  was  later  repeatedly  used  by  the  emperor 
to  fulfil  important  duties  as  a  warrior,  diplomatist  and 
statesman,  receiving  the  rank  of  a  marshal  of  France  and 
the  title  of  Prince  of  Ponte  Corvo.  Related  by  marriage, 
the  two  were  never  on  terms  of  intimacy,  and  the  Swedish 
politicians  who  thought  to  please  the  emperor,  and  gain 
a  strong  point  with  him  by  the  selection  of  Bernadotte,  were 
mistaken.  Bernadotte  joined  the  Lutheran  church  at  Elsi- 
nore  and  landed  in  Sweden  October  20,  1810.  By  his  im- 
pressive appearance,  his  amiability  and  his  genius,  he  soon 
won  all  hearts.  As  he  never  acquired  the  Swedish  lan- 
guage, and  as  his  superior  ability  as  a  statesman  and  war- 
rior  was    not    always    comprehended,    he    suffered    often 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  369 

through  misunderstandings  by  his  new  countrymen,  who 
never  ceased  to  admire  his  eminent  genius.  Prince  Charles, 
or  Charles  Johann,  as  he  called  himself  henceforward,  was 
of  a  commanding  presence  and  had  an  interesting  face, 
surrounded  by  black  curly  hair.  His  fascinating  ways  and 
winning  disposition  held  captive  the  admiration  even  of  his 
political  opponents.  Prince  Charles  refused  to  submit  to 
the  undue  influence  with  which  Napoleon  tried  to  fetter 
him,  and  always  carried  high  and  with  patriotic  independ- 
ence the  interests  of  his  adopted  countryo 

Napoleon  soon  found  reason  to  be  offended  with  Sweden. 
Through  the  peace  of  Paris,  Sweden  had  agreed  to  close  its 
harbors  to  England,  but  in  Gothenburg,  which  town  had 
suffered  destruction  by  fire  and  was  recently  rebuilt,  a  lively 
traffic  was  secretly  carried  on,  connecting  England  with 
Northern  Europe  and  enriching  Gothenburg.  Napoleon 
was  enraged  and  forced  Sweden  to  declare  war  on  Eng- 
land, which  power,  realizing  the  circumstances,  did  not 
open  any  hostilities,  and  allowed  the  commercial  traffic  to 
continue,  although  more  secretly.  Prince  Charles,  who 
from  the  start  exerted  a  strong  influence  upon  the  govern- 
ment, effected  an  approach  to  Russia  and  England  to  save 
the  dignity  of  Sweden,  much  to  Napoleon's  dismay.  He 
also  put  the  army  in  a  satisfactory  condition  by  recruiting. 
This  caused  a  revolt  in  Scania,  which  was  subdued  with 
severity.  The  Riksdag  of  1812  passed  a  law  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  compulsory  mihtia,  all  men  between  twenty- 
one  and  twenty-five  years  old  being  registered  in  classes 
according  to  age  and  Instructed  in  military  tactics  and 
discipline. 

Napoleon  tried  by  various  methods  to  subdue  and  hu- 
miliate the  independence  of  his  Swedish  ally,  which,  when 


S70  HISTORY   OF  SWEDEN 

fruitless,  led  him  to  acts  of  hostility.  Prince  Charles  made 
peace  with  England  and  an  alliance  with  Russia,  who 
promised  20,000  men  to  assist  in  the  conqnest  of  Norway. 
"When  Napoleon  and  Alexander  of  Bussia  commenced  war 
against  each  other,  popular  opinion  in  Sweden  sided  with 
the  former,  but  Prince  Charles,  who  knew  in  detail  the 
nature  of  Napoleon's  power  and  its  lack  of  a  solid  founda- 
tion, tried  to  make  his  views  clear.  He  met  Alexander 
pers(mally,  agreeing  with  him  on  plans  of  mutual  action,  at 
Abo  in  1813.  After  Napoleon's  unsuccessful  march  against 
Russia,  Swedish  opinions  changed  and  Bemadotte  had  free 
hands  to  follow  up  his  policy.  England  formed  an  alliance 
with  Sweden,  agreeing  to  support  the  conquest  of  Norway 
and  ceding  the  island  of  Guadeloupe  (later  sold  to  France 
by  Sweden).  In  1813,  25,000  Swedish  troops  were  sent 
to  Germany,  joining  the  continental  allies,  who,  divided 
in  three  armies,  were  to  attack  Napoleon,  according  to 
plans  mostly  mapped  out  by  Prince  Charles  of  Sweden. 
The  latter  was  to  command  the  Northern  army  of  100,000 
men,  Swedes,  Prussians,  Russians  and  English,  but  his 
position  was  a  difficult  one,  for  his  superior  tactics  were 
misunderstood  by  his  subordinates  and  by  Blucher,  the 
valiant  but  headstrong  commander  of  50,000  Prussians, 
who  formed  the  Silesian  army.  But  through  the  battles 
of  Groesbeeren  (August  23d),  Dennewitz  (September  6th), 
and  Leipsic  (October  16-19),  the  eminence  of  Bernadotte's 
genius  was  fully  brought  out,  his  leadership  and  the  Swed- 
ish troops  taking  honorable  pcurt  In  each.  Napoleon  aod  his 
armies  weie  defeated  and  pursued  by  the  allies.  The  mon- 
archs  voted  a  resolution  of  thanks  to  Prince  Charles,  who, 
with  his  army,  marched  northward  to  carry  out  the  ultimate 
olgeot  of  his  policy,  the  conquest  of  Norway,  the  plans  of 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  871 

which  had  been  made  by  Count  Platen  and  handed  him 
before  he  ever  left  Paris. 

Denmark  had  declared  war  on  Sweden  and  sided  with 
Napoleon.  By  turning  against  Denmark  the  former  Mar- 
shal Bernadotte  saved  himself  from  the  necessity  of  making 
an  attack  on  the  country  of  his  birth.  Lubeck  surrendered, 
the  Danes  were  defeated  at  Bornhoeved,  Kiel  and  Glucks- 
burg  were  captured,  and  the  whole  of  Holstein  occupied.  An 
armistice  was  agreed  to.  Denmark  offered  the  diocese  of 
Drontheim,  but  Prince  Charles  was  resolved  to  expel  Den- 
mark from  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  January  14,  1814, 
peace  was  made  at  Kiel,  Denmark  ceding  to  Sweden  the 
whole  of  Norway,  except  Iceland  and  Fero  Islands,  and 
receiving  Swedish  Pomerania  and  the  island  of  Rugen  in 
compensation. 

Norway,  united  with  Denmark  ever  since  the  days  of 
Queen  Margaret,  in  a  relation  of  more  or  less  neglected 
conditions,  during  which  her  original  independence  was 
lost,  had  of  late  not  been  satisfied  to  remain  under  Danish 
supremacy.  The  governing  class  of  officeholders  was  to 
a  great  extent  of  Danish  origin  and  tendencies,  and  the 
patriotism  of  the  population  at  large  dates  from  a  later 
period.  Among  the  more  cultured  classes  the  revolution  in 
France  and  close  relations  with  England  had  fostered  a 
desire  for  political  independence.  The  Danes  made  use 
of  this  fact  in  order  to  try  to  maintain  the  relation  with 
Denmark  in  some  way.  The  Danish  crown  prince,  Chris- 
tian Frederic,  was  in  1813  made  governor-general  of  Nor- 
way. He  was  a  man  of  some  brilliant  gifts,  but  without 
any  great  ability.  By  journeys  in  the  country  he  ac- 
quired popularity  and  adherents.  In  February,  1814,  a 
meeting  was  held  at  Eidsvold  by  men  of  prominence,  who 


S72  HISTORY  OF  SWEDEN 

declared  the  prince  regent.  May  17th  a  constitution  was 
adopted  and  Christian  Frederic  elected  king  of  Norway. 
His  courteous  offer  of  extending  his  rule  to  Sweden  was 
there  met  by  derision.  After  a  triumphal  return  to  Stock- 
holm,  Prince  Bernadotte  gathered  his  forces  and  attacked 
Norway  both  by  land  and  sea,  the  aged  King  Charles  XIII. 
having  command  of  the  navy.  An  army  of  20,000  Swedes 
entered  Norway  under  command  of  Von  Essen,  who  cap- 
tured the  fortifications  at  Svinesund,  The  navy  took  pos- 
session of  the  islands  in  the  archipelago  outside  of  Frederic* 
stad,  which  town  was  captured,  with  the  fortress  Kongsten, 
100  cannon  and  considerable  stores  of  weapons  and  provis- 
ions. The  Norw^ian  army  of  30,000  men  was  located  in 
various  places  with  the  central  body  of  troops  at  Moss. 
The  plan  of  Prince  Charles  was  to  enclose  it  from  all  sides. 
A  smaller  Swedish  force  of  3,000  men  was  repulsed  by  the 
Norwegians  in  two  conflicts  at  Lder  and  Medskog,  cele- 
brated by  the  latter  as  important  victories.  In  the  mean- 
time  the  Swedish  army  procee^Ied  northward  and  the  fleet 
penetrated  to  the  bay  of  Christiania.  The  plan  to  enclose 
the  Norw^an  army  at  Moss  was  being  carried  into  effect 
in  order  to  finish  the  war  by  one  single  battle,  when  nego* 
tiations  for  peace  were  begun. 

Prince  Charles  was  anxious  to  have  the  conflict  brought 
to  a  rapid  close  because  he  feared  that  the  powers,  envious 
of  Sweden's  good  fortune  and  dissatisfied  with  the  refusal 
of  Prince  Charles  to  join  in  an  attack  on  France,  might 
take  unfavorable  decisions  at  the  approaching  congress  of 
Vienna.  Prompted  by  these  reasons,  and  perhaps  influ- 
enced by  his  experience  of  revolutionary  movements,  Prince 
Charles  offered  to  sanction  Norway's  constitution  only  with 
such  changes  as  were  necessary  for  a  union  with  Sweden, 


HISTORY   OP   SWEDEN  873 

besides  demanding  the  abdication  and  speedy  departure 
of  Christian  Frederic.  On  these  terms  peace  was  made  at 
the  convention  of  Moss,  August  14,  1814.  At  the  first 
meeting  of  the  Norwegian  Storthing,  or  Diet,  the  terms  of 
peace  were  sanctioned  and  Charles  XIII.  chosen  king 
of  Norway.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  treaties 
were  signed  between  Sweden  and  Prussia  and  between  Den- 
mark and  Prussia,  according  to  which  Swedish  Pomerania 
and  Rugen  were  ceded  to  Prussia  on  the  payment  of  about 
$2,000,000,  and  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg  ceded  to  Denmark. 
In  the  relation  between  Sweden  and  Norway  no  change  was 
made,  and  Denmark  lost  all  hope  of  the  restitution  of  the 
latter  country. 

The  great  moderation  shown  by  Prince  Charles  in  the 
acquisition  of  Norway  has  been  criticised  in  various  ways, 
but  none  of  the  arguments  used  against  it  have  them- 
selves been  able  to  bear  a  critical  test.  The  idea  of  uniting 
the  two  countries  as  independent  states  was  older  in  Sweden 
than  the  very  constitution  of  Norway  which  Prince  Charles 
accepted.  It  was  the  idea  of  the  leading  men  in  Sweden 
who  had  dethroned  Gustavus  IV.  in  1809o  The  Scandina- 
vian Union  is  not  the  best  imaginable,  has  brought  Sweden 
no  added  power  or  security,  and  has  placed  her  king  in 
a  difficult  position.  The  only  bond  of  union  is  the  king, 
the  two  countries  each  having  their  constitution,  diet  and 
cabinet.  There  is  only  one  department  in  common,  the  one 
of  which  the  Swedish  minister  of  foreign  affairs  is  the  head 
and  which  settles  all  relations  with  other  countries  for  both 
Sweden  and  Norway.  Three  members  of  the  Norw^ao 
cabinet  are  residents  of  Stockholm,  to  prepare  affairs  per* 
taining  to  the  Norwegian  administration  and  to  partake  in 
affairs  involving   both  countries.      These  stipulations  are 


574  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

made  by  the  Act  of  Union,  accepted  in  1815  by  the  Diets 
of  both  countries.  According  to  the  Norwegian  constitu- 
tion, the  king  can  use  no  greater  force  than  3,000  men  out- 
side the  Norwegian  boundary,  except  with  the  special  con- 
sent of  the  Diet.  Thus  Sweden  cannot  in  case  of  war  expect 
any  soHd  support  from  her  sister  country.  The  loose  con- 
nections of  the  Union  did  not  become  apparent  during  the 
reigns  of  Charles  XIII.  and  his  successor,  and  the  powers 
of  Europe  were  not  aware  of  them.  Thus  the  Union  served 
its  purpose  as  offering  a  solid  front  of  unity  and  strength 
to  the  powers  who  were  dividing  and  redividing  almost 
every  territory  on  the  map  of  Europe. 

Charles  XIII.  died  in  February,  1818,  at  the  age  of 
seventy,  and  his  talented  queen  followed  him  a  few  months 
later. 

Charles  XIV.  Johann  was  fifty-four  years  of  age  when 
ascending  the  throne,  but  a  man  in  his  prime.  To  the 
dignity  of  the  crown  he  brought  a  great  personal  influ- 
ence, and  his  fame  as  a  warrior,  which  spread  throughout 
Europe.  The  firm  diplomatic  relations  with  Russia  were 
continued,  but  approaches  to  England  were  also  made. 
Charles  XIV.  gave  close  personal  attention  to  the  adminis- 
tration, being  especially  interested  in  the  defence,  finances, 
canals  and  roads.  With  his  brilliant  genius,  quick  temper 
and  sense  of  superiority,  the  king  sometimes  reigned  more 
alone  and  by  his  own  decision  than  was  considered  advis- 
able; but  in  the  majority  of  cases  he  was  influenced  by  the 
able  men  of  his  cabinet — Wetterstedt,  Rosenblad,  Skjoelde- 
brand,  Cederstrom  and  Wirsen.  An  intimate  friend  of  the 
king  was  Count  Magnus  Brahe,  who,  though  not  a  member 
of  the  cabinet,  influenced  the  government  more  than  was 
thought  compatible  with  its  dignity.    Count  Brahe,  the  head 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  375 

of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  aristocratic  families,  used 
his  great  influence  over  the  king  mostly  in  a  noble  way,  him- 
self being  raised  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  state.  Ha 
was  blindly  devoted  to  the  king,  followed  him  like  a  shadow, 
taking  infinite  care  of  him  during  his  last  illness,  and  dying 
only  a  few  months  after  his  royal  friend. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  works  carried  on  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  XIV.  was  the  Gotha  Canal  system,  which 
was  brought  to  completion.  The  old  bishop  Brask  had 
spoken  of  a  connection  between  the  lakes  of  Venar  and  Vet* 
ter,  and  the  great  Oxenstierna  thought  of  a  canal  between 
the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic  across  SwedeUo  Charles  XII. 
had  ordered  Polhem  to  make  a  trafficable  passage  around 
the  waterfalls  of  TroUhetta,  which  was  done  after  new  plans 
during  the  reign  of  Gustavus  IVo  During  the  Period  of 
Liberty,  Daniel  Thunberg  had  made  plans  for  the  whole 
canal  system.  But  Count  Balzar  von  Platen  was  the  man 
to  make  the  great  work  a  realized  fact,  devoting  his  whole 
life  to  it,  conquering  distrust,  opposition  and  lack  of  funds. 
He  spent  six  years  in  preliminary  surveys  before  taking  up 
the  agitation  for  the  realization  of  his  plans.  During  the 
whole  progress  of  the  work,  his  efficient  activity  in  looking 
after  every  detail  could  only  be  compared  to  his  constant 
agitation  in  the  Riksdag  for  the  support  of  the  immense 
enterprise  and  his  scrupulous  attention  to  the  financial  part 
of  it.  When  the  great  canal  was  opposed  as  an  unpatriotic 
gcheme,  endangering  the  defence  of  the  country,  Platen 
answered  by  completing  plans  for  a  colossal  fortress  in  the 
heart  of  the  canal  system,  which,  when  erected,  became 
the  strategic  stronghold  of  Sweden,  and  was  named  Carls- 
borg.  Platen  died  as  governor-general  of  Norway,  seeing 
his  great  life-work  nearing  completion.     The  Gotha  Canal 


876  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

is  the  most  remarkable  of  its  kind  in  Europe,  being  259 
miles  long,  with  74  locks,  many  of  which  have  been  cut  out 
of  solid  granite  hills.  It  is  of  great  value  to  commerce  and 
affords  a  most  picturesque  scenic  tour. 

Charles  XIV.  met  with  a  power  in  politics  which,  from 
the  start  not  strong  enough  to  carry  away  victory,  ended 
by  attaining  its  goal.  It  was  the  liberal  opposition  in  the 
Riksdag,  supported  by  a  liberal  press.  Charles  XIV.,  in 
his  native  country,  had  seen  to  what  an  infamy  the  abuse 
of  liberal  forms  of  government  could  lead,  and  he  was 
sternly  resolved  to  antagonize  any  movement  which  aimed 
to  introduce  more  democratic  principles  in  the  handling 
of  state  affairs  and  in  the  remodelling  of  the  system  of 
representation.  Charles  XIV.  was  in  a  delicate  personal 
position.  He  was  the  only  one  of  the  Napoleonic  marshals 
who  preserved  his  throne  after  the  fall  of  the  emperor,  and 
the  strong  continental  reaction  looked  askance  at  this  new 
man  who  wore  one  of  the  oldest  crowns  of  Europe.  But 
his  great  reputation  as  a  warrior  and  statesman,  and  his 
persistent  peace  policy,  ought  to  have  been  to  him  sufficient 
guarantees  of  .the  fidelity  of  his  subjects.  Charles  XIV., 
in  the  agitation  against  the  self-willed  cabinet,  saw  an 
enmity  against  himself.  By  a  network  of  secret  detec- 
tives, the  king  tried  to  uncover  conspiracies  and  plots  which 
existed  in  his  imagination  only,  or  in  that  of  those  who  were 
aware  of  his  weakness  and  sought  to  gain  personal  favors 
by  making  use  of  it.  The  severity  with  which  the  press 
was  censured  and  its  members  punished  created  a  bitter- 
ness against  the  king  personally,  which  ceased  only  during 
the  few  last  years  of  his  reign.  "With  the  new  constitution 
a  law  establishing  full  liberty  of  public  utterance  in  print 
was  enacted,  but  a  temporary  restraint  had  been  placed  on 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  377 

this  liberty,  in  1812,  on  account  of  violent  newspaper  at- 
tacks upon  Russia.  The  government  still  made  use  of  this 
restraint,  which  caused  many  severe  legal  sentences  and 
subsequent  bittemesSo 

Among  the  press  organs  of  that  period  the  * 'Argus"  and 
**Aftonbladet*'  were  the  most  conspicuous  in  their  attacks 
upon  the  conservative  government;  Lars  Hierta,  one  of  the 
ablest  of  Swedish  editorial  writers,  was  the  publisher  of  the 
latter.  His  paper  was  repeatedly  confiscated.  Anders 
Lindeberg  was  the  publisher  of  "Stockholmsposten."  In 
an  agitation  against  the  royal  monopoly  in  theatrical  affairs, 
Lindeberg  threw  out  the  accusation  that  the  king,  for 
purely  economical  reasons,  opposed  a  reform  in  those  mat- 
ters. He  was  arraigned  and  a  sentence  of  death  passed 
upon  him,  which  was  commuted  to  three  years'  imprison- 
ment. But  Lindeberg  refused  to  accept  any  clemency, 
declaring  himself  ready  and  resolved  to  dieo  The  govern- 
ment, who  dared  not  take  his  life,  was  in  a  delicate  predica- 
ment, but  saved  itself  and  Lindeuerg  by  announcing  pardon 
of  **poHtical  criminals,'*  at  the  anniversary  of  the  king's  first 
arrival  in  SwedeUo  Jacob  Crusenstolpe,  a  novelist  and 
writer  of  note,  was  one  of  the  intimate  friends  and  sup- 
porters of  the  government,  but  turned  liberal,  attacking  the 
king  in  a  pamphlet.  He  was  sentenced  to  three  years' 
imprisonment,  which  created  great  commotion  and  a  revolt 
in  Stockholm,  not  subdued  except  after  a  bloody  conflict 
with  the  troops  (July,  1838).  Crusenstolpe  continued 
writing  from   his  prison. 

The  principal  leaders  of  the  opposition  in  the  Riksdag 
were  L.  Boye,  Fo  Bo  von  Schwerin  and  C  He  Anckarsverd 
among  the  nobles,  and  Anders  Danielsson  among  the  peas- 
ants.    This  opposition  criticised  the  government  for  negli- 


SrS  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

gence,  extravagance  and  incompetency.  Its  policy  was  an 
entire  reconstruction  of  the  state,  politically,  socially  and 
financially,  on  the  basis  of  a  constitutional  government. 
The  opposition  commenced  by  establishing  the  right  of  free 
deliberations  in  the  Riksdag.  At  the  Riksdags  of  1827  and 
1828  the  government  was  severely  taken  to  task  on  account 
of  the  sale  of  ships  to  the  Spanish  insurgents  in  South 
America.  The  king  was  inclined  to  join  England  against 
Spain,  but  had  to  recede  on  account  of  pressure  from  Russia 
and  the  continental  powers.  The  sales  were  partly  annulled 
and  the  Swedish  government  experienced  a  considerable 
financial  loss.  Cederstrom  was  the  responsible  party,  but 
upon  his  resignation  his  able  successor  Wirsen  was  able 
to  cover  up  his  tracks. 

If  Sweden  was  forced  to  change  her  policy  in  the  South 
American  affair  she  was  found  unyielding  in  the  settlement 
of  the  boundary  questions  with  Russia.  This  power  was 
anxious  to  obtain  a  slice  of  the  Norwegian  Finnmark,  with 
excellent  ice-free  harbors  at  the  bay  of  Varanger.  In  the 
ultimate  settlement  with  Russia,  in  1826,  a  great  territory 
was  ceded,  but  not  any  of  the  important  harbors. 

In  1840  the  opposition  had  waxed  strong  enough  to  effect 
one  of  its  most  desired  reforms,  the  constitutional  recon  ■ 
struction  of  the  cabinet.  This  body  was  made  to  consist 
of  ten  members,  of  whom  seven  were  to  be  the  heads  of  the 
various  state  departments,  those  of  justice,  foreign  affairs, 
army,  navy,  civil  service,  finance  and  ecclesiastics.*  As 
a  consequence  of  this  change  in  the  constitution,  several 
cabinet  members  resigned  and  were  succeeded  by  men  mor^ 
in  touch  with  the  opposition. 

*  The  ecclesiastic  department  is  also  the  department  of  education. 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  379 

The  greatest  of  contemplated  reforms  was  a  new  system 
of  representation,  but  the  opposition  was  not  able  to  carry 
it  through.  At  the  first  revolution  of  Gustavus  III.,  Sted- 
ingk  favored  a  reconstruction  of  the  Riksdag  after  the 
model  of  the  English  parhament,  Gustavus  III,  was  afraid 
to  cause  complications  by  the  introduction  of  such  a  nov- 
elty, but  considered  it  gravely  at  the  time  of  his  second 
revolution.  In  1830,  the  idea  was  taken  up  by  the  opposi- 
tion, and  Anckarsverd  and  the  eminent  lawyer  Richert  made 
up  a  plan  for  a  new  Diet,  according  to  the  plan  of  the  Nor- 
wegian Storthing.  This  plan,  with  the  idea  of  one  chamber, 
instead  of  two,  was  repeatedly  discussed  at  the  Riksdag 
of  1840,  but  not  adopted.  This  remarkable  Riksdag, 
which  lasted  seventeen  months,  did  considerable  for  the 
improvement  of  education  and  was  ultimately  dismissed 
by  Charles  XIYo,  in  a  speech  of  a  conciliatory  spirit, 
which  went  far  toward  restoring  the  old  popularity  of 
the  king. 

Charles  XIV,  died  March  8,  1844,  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
one.  During  the  last  years  of  his  reign  he  received  strong 
and  repeated  evidence  of  the  love  of  his  people,  especially 
upon  the  occasion  of  his  twenty-fifth  anniversary  as  king 
of  Sweden.  **No  one  has  made  a  career  like  mine,"  he  said 
shortly  before  his  death.  He  was  a  child  of  the  revolu- 
tionary epoch,  favored  by  its  opportunities  to  receive  a  high 
station,  without  being  sullied  by  any  of  its  vices.  If  it  be 
true  that  his  position  often  was  made  difficult  through  lack 
of  appreciation  by  his  new  subjects,  it  is  not  less  true  that 
he,  through  lack  of  intimacy  with  the  Swedish  language, 
national  character  and  traditions,  was  unable  to  further  the 
development  of  his  new  country,  in  the  same  degree  as 
\70uld  a  native  provided  with  such  rich  endowment.     The 


880  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

sun  of  Charles  XIV.,  which  rose  in  brilliancy,  set  m  the 
glory  of  full  appreciationo 

The  reign  of  Charles  XIVc  produced  a  new  line  of  emi- 
nent scientists  and  was  the  golden  age  of  Swedish  litera- 
ture. The  remarkable  genius  of  Jo  Jo  Berzelius  remolded 
the  science  of  chemistry,  placing  it  on  a  basis  where  there 
are  hardly  any  limits  to  its  scope.  Elias  Fries  devised  a 
new  system  of  botany.  Sven  Nilsson,  a  distinguished  zoolo- 
gist, also  became  the  founder  of  a  new  science,  compara- 
tive archsBologyo  Ko  Jo  Schlyter  edited  a  complete  collec- 
tion of  the  old  provincial  laws,  a  work  of  equal  importance 
to  philology  and  jurisprudence.  P.  H.  Ling  invented  the 
Swedish  system  of  gymnastics  and  founded  the  Central 
Institute  of  Gymnastics  in  Stockholm,  where  the  Swed- 
ish massage  or  movement  cure  has  won  a  scientific  de- 
velopment worthy  of  its  world-wide  famCo  E,  G.  Geijer, 
as  a  philosopher,  was  a  noble  follower  of  Hoeijer,  while  as 
a  historian  he  is  the  greatest  genius  of  his  country.  As  a 
poet  and  composer  Geijer  is  also  note wor thy „  Professor 
of  history  at  Upsala,  he  was  once  accused  of  heterodoxy, 
but  acquitted.  His  pohtical  career  was  remarkable.  Geijer 
was  a  firm  supporter  of  the  government  and  conservative 
principles,  until  fifty-seven  years  of  age,  when  he  joined  the 
opposition. 

The  world  of  letters  was  divided  in  parties  as  bitterly 
opposed  to  each  other  as  those  of  the  pohtical  worldo  The 
old  Gustavian  school,  of  which  Leopold  remained  the  last 
representative,  was  attacked  by  the  *'New  School,"  which, 
inspired  by  German  Romanticism,  was  brimful  of  inspira- 
tion, imagination  and  f  eeUngs,  but  very  Httle  that  was  orig- 
inal, clear  or  national.  Of  this  so-called  *'phosphoristic" 
school  Atterbom  was  the  distinguished  leader.    Stagnelius,  a 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  381 

poet  of  rare  attainments,  but  who  died  early,  belongs  in  this 
group.  The  New  School  was  in  turn  attacked  by  the  "Gothic 
Society,"  a  school  of  national  Swedish  Romanticism,  which 
introduced  a  cult  of  the  Old  Northern  spirit  of  individuality, 
terseness  and  power.  Ling  and  Geijer  were  among  the 
leading  men  of  this  school,  whose  enthusiasm  for  everything 
national  had  a  lasting  influence  upon  the  research  for,  and 
gathering  of,  folk  lore,  songs,  traditions,  customs,  and  every 
trait  of  the  popular  culture  of  bygone  days.  In  Franz^n 
and  Wallin,  Sweden  had  two  religious  poets  of  the  very 
first  rank.  More  famous  than  any  of  these  was  Esaias 
Tegn^r,  the  second  great  national  poet  of  Sweden,  whose 
"Frithiof's  Saga"  Was  destined  to  become  the  most  cele- 
brated literary  work  of  all  Europe  in  its  day,  appearing  in 
a  vast  number  of  translations  in  a  great  number  of  lan- 
guages. Tegn^r  was  in  sympathy  with  the  old  Gustavian 
school,  but  a  member  of  the  Gothic  Society,  and  by  his 
choice  of  subjects  in  harmony  with  the  national  school. 
There  is  a  wonderful  richness  of  sparkling  life  and  wit  in 
Tegndr's  poems,  but  they  are  sometimes  overladen  by  the 
vivid  ornamental  images  in  which  they  abound.  Tegner 
was  a  man  of  extremely  broad  and  liberal  views  on  every 
phase  of  human  life  and  effortc  He  hated  with  the  whole 
power  of  his  fiery  soul  the  mysticism,  obscurantism  and 
morbid  sensualism  of  his  age.  He  was  the  sworn  enemy 
of  the  "Holy  Alliance"  and  the  reactionary  powers  in  state, 
church  and  literature.  In  his  chivalrous  spirit  and  love  of 
the  great  individuals,  he  became  tho  admirer  of  Charles 
XIV.,  whose  policy  he  therefore  supported.  Tegner  is  not 
the  one  who  in  the  grandeur  and  faultlessness  of  his  crea- 
tions has  attained  the  very  highest  rank  among  Swedish 
poets,  but  is  the  greatest  and  most  unbiased  thinker  among 


883  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

ihem^  and  has  as  such  exerted  a  beneficial  inflnence  upon 
the  national  consciousness  and  cultural  developmento  Teg- 
n^'s  judgment  upon  one  of  his  Gustavian  precursors  may 
be  repeated  in  his  own  case:  *' Perchance  the  greatest  not 
as  poet,  but  as  genius." 

Oscar  I  was  forty-five  years  of  age  at  the  death  of  his 
father.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Charles  XIV.  and  Queen 
Desideria,  the  latter  a  daughter  of  a  French  merchant  by 
the  name  of  Clary.  Oscar  was,  in  1823,  married  to  Prin- 
cess Josephine  of  Leuchtenberg,  a  granddaughter  of  the 
French  empress  of  the  same  name.  It  was  a  difficult  posi- 
tion, the  one  held  by  the  heir-apparent.  Charles  XIVo  was 
jealous  of  his  own  power  and  popularity  and  suspected  his 
son  of  being  in  sympathy  with  the  oppositiouo  The  prince, 
distanced  as  far  as  possible  from  the  affairs  of  state,  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  social  and  economic  subjectSc  He 
gave  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  the  study  of  prisons  and 
the  care  of  prisoners,  seeking  by  pamphlets  to  spread  his 
sympathies  for  the  latter  and  to  improve  their  conditionSc 
Oscar  Ic  was  fondly  devoted  to  the  fine  arts,  himself  a 
talented  painter  and  composer.  He  did  not  possess  his 
father's  brilliant  genius  or  power  of  personal  influence, 
although  an  upright  man  of  great  talent  and  exceedingly 
prepossessing  in  appearance.  Oscar  was  of  a  mild,  saga- 
cious disposition,  who  liked  to  go  into  detail  and  take 
time  for  investigation  and  decision.  He  was  not  a  man 
of  action,  and  lacked  somewhat  consistency  in  carrying 
out  plans  of  a  wider  scope.  Oscar  lo  had  a  little  of  the 
autocrat  of  the  father  in  him  and  often  acted  on  his  own 
judgment,  without  taking  the  advice  of  his  cabinetc  Being 
the  loyal,  highly  cultured  and  patriotic  man  that  he  was, 
he  in  various  ways  furthered  the  development  of  his  country. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  383 

Few  kings  have  ascended  a  throne  under  such  enthu- 
siasm and  joyful  aspirations  on  the  part  of  the  people  as 
King  Oscar  I.  Several  important  reforms  were  enacted 
at  the  Riksdag  which  met  in  1844,  and  the  king  gave  his 
sanction  to  them  all.  It  was  decided  that  the  Riksdag 
should  meet  every  third  instead  of  every  fifth  year,  the  lib- 
erty of  the  press  was  augmented,  and  to  women  were  given 
equal  rights  in  the  stipulations  of  inheritance  and  marriage. 
The  last-mentioned  reform  was  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
nobles,  who  feared  it  would,  to  a  great  extent,  annul  their 
privileges.  The  law  was  passed  by  the  three  lower  Estates, 
in  spite  of  the  nobles,  and  was  sanctioned  by  the  king. 
Oscar  I.  took  great  pains  to  have  the  industries  freed  from 
the  restraint  under  which  they  had  been  suffering  during 
the  reign  of  his  predecessor. 

King  Oscar  surrounded  himself  with  men  of  a  more 
modem  type  than  his  father's  advisers.  They  were  in 
touch  with  the  principles  of  the  opposition,  although  far 
from  radical,  and  more  respected  for  their  character  than 
for  their  ability.  The  opposition,  which  had  been  so  harsh 
during  the  administration  of  Charles  XIV.,  was  toned 
down  considerably;  but  complaints  were  soon  heard  that 
the  new  government  was  neither  consistent  nor  resolute 
in  its  liberal  policy  and  that  courtiers  and  young  officers 
won  an  unduly  rapid  promotion.  Soon  an  opposition  of  a 
new  order  was  organized  against  the  administration.  The 
conservatives,  finding  that  it  leaned  too  much  on  the  lib- 
eral principles,  attacked  it  for  this  reason.  A  powerful 
conservative  party  at  the  Riksdag  was  organized,  with 
Hartmansdorff  as  the  leader  among  the  nobles  and  Arch- 
bishop Wingard  among  the  clergy.  Attacked  by  liberals 
and    conservatives    alike,    and    not    supported    by    either, 


884  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

the  government  was  c^  an  nndecided  and  vacillating 
tenor. 

The  French  rev<Jution  ci  1848  influenced  Swedish  poH« 
tics  in  several  ways.  The  "friends  of  reform,"  viz.,  the 
party  desiring  a  parliamentary  reorganization,  were  incited 
by  the  republican  tendencieSo  The  masses  of  Stockholm 
on  one  oocasicm  gave  vent  to  their  feelings  by  demonstra- 
tions which  were  of  a  menacing  character^  Great  crowds 
collected  outside  the  place  where  a  "reform  banquet'*  was 
helde  There  it  was  resolved  to  attack  the  houses  of  Hart- 
mansdorff  and  several  other  leading  conservatives.  The 
owners  placed  themselves  in  safety,  but  the  windows  of  the 
houses  were  broken  by  the  mob,  who  also  threw  stones  at 
the  troops.  The  tumult  was  quenched,  but  not  without 
bloodshed.  The  press  was  greatly  agitated  for  a  long  time 
afterward,  using  language  against  the  government  that  was 
by  no  means  choice.  The  liberals  in  the  Riksdag  com- 
menced to  take  an  attitude  as  decided  as  the  one  held  by 
the  conservatives.  From  this  time  on  King  Oscar  showed 
great  coldness  to  the  liberals,  and  surrounded  himself  with 
advisers  more  in  harmony  with  the  conservatives. 

The  proposition  for  a  reorganization  of  the  Riksdag,  made 
in  1840,  was  not  accepted,  but  a  committee  was  appointed 
in  1848  to  make  a  new  proposition,  which  failed  to  please 
either  government  or  Riksdag.  The  king  then  had  a 
new  proposition  prepared,  based  upon  general  elections. 
The  liberals  did  not  think  the  royal  proposition  democratic 
enough  and  offered  one  of  their  own.  Both  of  these  were 
defeated  at  the  Riksdag  of  1850,  thanks  to  the  opposition 
of  nobility  and  clergy.  A  third  one  was  made  by  Hart- 
mansdorff,  but  also  failed  to  please,  not  being  conservative 
enough  for  the  nobles.      Hartmansdorff  aroused  so  much 


HISTORY  OP  SWEDEN  385 

hatred  among  his  fellow  nobles  that  they  refused  to  be 
seated  on  the  same  bench  with  him  during  the  sessions. 
After  a  period  of  perfect  isolation  the  old  conservative  leader 
was  judged  with  greater  leniency  by  his  former  followers. 
Shortly  before  his  death,  in  1856,  he  sent  them  the  following 
greetings  "Ask  the  nobles  not  to  stand  up  so  long  for  their 
privileges,  they  will  lose  nothing  by  surrendering  them." 
It  seemed  as  if  the  interest  for  parliamentary  reform  had 
died  out  during  the  latter  part  of  King  Oscar's  reign,  but 
such  was  not  the  case;  it  only  gathered  force  in  the  quiet, 
and  the  king  was  right  when  defining  it  as  a  "question 
which  could  never  fall." 

The  influence  of  the  revolution  of  1848  also  was  felt  in 
the  foreign  relations  of  Sweden.  The  German  population  of 
Holstein  and  Schleswig  tried  to  sever  their  connections  with 
Denmark  in  order  to  effect  a  union  with  Germany,  Prussia 
taking  upon  herself  to  liberate  said  provinces.  Denmark 
made  various  efforts  to  gain  the  active  support  of  Sweden. 
The  so-called  "Scandinavism"  was  a  good  means  to  obtain 
this  end.  This  movement,  which  aimed  at  the  establishment 
of  a  closer  union  between  the  three  Scandinavian  countries, 
based  upon  the  fact  of  the  common  origin  of  their  inhabi* 
tants,  had  originated  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  The 
meetings  of  scientists  and  students,  in  1842  and  1843,  at 
Stockholm,  had  given  growth  to  this  movement,  which  was 
of  a  very  high-strung  nature,  but,  as  far  as  the  Danes  were 
concerned,  also  of  an  egotistical  motive.  Charles  XIV.  had 
been  averse  to  this  "students'  policy,"  but  Oscar  I.  waa 
sympathetically  impressed  by  it.  "Scandinavism"  rose 
high  in  1848,  especially  at  the  universities,  and  King  Oscar 
sent  a  communication  to  the  Prussian  government  to  the 
effect  that  he  was  resolved  to  oppose  any  attack  on  the 

XX 17 


386  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

Danish  isles.  An  army  of  20,000  men  was  ordered  to 
Scania  to  give  weight  to  this  statement.  A  smaller  division 
of  it  was  even  for  a  time  quartered  in  the  island  of  Fc^nen, 
The  German  troops  which  had  invaded  Jutland  soon  retired 
and  hostilities  ceased  for  some  time.  King  Oscar  effected 
an  armistice  of  seven  months,  in  August,  1848,  As  a  result 
of  the  war  between  Denmark  and  Germany  during  the  next 
few  years  an  agreement  followed,  ciccording  to  which  Hol- 
stein  and  Schleswig  would  for  some  time  remain  under 
Danish  supremacy. 

King  Oscar  had,  from  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
tried  to  meet  all  demands  for  reform  made  by  his  Norwe- 
gian subjectSj  who  were  anxious  to  demonstrate  to  the 
world  the  perfect  independence  of  their  country.  The  king 
himself  took  the  initiative  steps  to  give  Norway  a  national 
flag  of  its  own,  the  two  countries  up  to  the  reign  of  Oscar 
having  had  one  common  official  flag.  He  also  instituted  the 
Norwegian  knightly  order  of  St.  Olaf  in  resemblance  to 
the  older  Swedish  orders  of  Seraphim,  Vasa,  etc.,  and  gave 
permission  to  place  the  name  of  Norway  before  that  of  Swe- 
den in  the  Norwegian  royal  title.  For  these  reasons  public 
opinion  in  Sweden  expected  Norwegian  concessions  in  re- 
gard to  the  Act  of  Union,  which  seemed  in  need  of  revision. 
A  committee  of  men  from  both  countries  was  appointed  to 
make  the  revision,  but  the  Norwegian  members  opposed  all 
measures  involving  any  change,  expressing  themselves  in 
such  emphatic  terms  that  it  was  found  best  to  leave  the 
deliberations  of  the  committee  unpublished.  In  1854  the 
Norwegian  Storthing  decided  to  abolish  the  office  of  a  gov- 
ernor-general. King  Oscar  refused  to  sanction  this  law, 
but  allowed  the  office  to  remain  vacant  during  the  rest  of 
his  reign. 


HISTORY    OP  SWEDEIT  887 

Intemperance  had  grown  to  be  an  evil  from  which  the 
Swedish  people  greatly  suffered  since  the  reign  of  Gustavua 
III.,  when  alcohol  began  to  be  produced  in  great  quantities 
by  the  common  people.  The  king  encouraged  the  temper- 
ance movement,  which  was  very  fruitful  in  results.  In  1853 
the  Riksdag  abolished  the  free  and  unrestrained  production 
of  alcohol,  which  was  changed  into  a  regular  industry  and 
placed  under  heavy  taxation.  From  1855  onward,  the  prin- 
ciples of  free  trade  were  adopted  for  commerce  and  trade 
through  the  influence  of  J.  A.  Gripenstedt,  the  minister  of 
finance,  and  seemed  to  have  beneficial  results  in  every 
branch  of  industrial  and  commercial  activity.  The  state 
revenues  were  greatly  increased  and  the  surplus  spent  in 
improvements  of  the  widest  scope.  The  means  of  interior 
communications  were  vastly  improved.  In  1853  the  net- 
work of  the  state  electric  telegraph  began  to  spread  and 
now  embraces  every  part  of  the  country.  The  agitation 
for  the  construction  of  railways  had  long  been  an  active 
one.  The  first  one  constructed  was  a  private  railway  be- 
tween CErebro  and  Arboga.  In  1854  the  Riksdag  decided 
on  the  construction  of  trunk  lines  in  Southern  Sweden,  to  be 
built  and  controlled  by  the  state.  The  Riksdag  of  1856 
appropriated  a  sum  of  $5,000,000  for  that  purpose.  The 
railways  were  rapidly  and  solidly  built  under  the  supervis- 
ion of  Baron  Nils  Ericsson,  the  highly  talented  brother  of 
John  Ericsson,  the  world-famous  inventor  of  the  propeller, 
the  caloric  engine,  the  steam  hose  and  the  "Monitorc" 

The  relations  with  Russia  were  not  the  best  during  the 
latter  part  of  King  Oscar's  reign.  The  Russian  claims  on 
the  harbors  at  the  bay  of  Varanger  were  repeated  in  1847, 
and  when  deliberations  for  a  settlement  were  opened,  in 
1851,  Russia  showed  a  tendency  to  take  possession  of  the 


S88  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

desired  places.  In  the  conflict  between  Russia,  on  one  hand, 
and  Turkey,  supported  by  England  and  France,  on  the 
other,  Sweden  sided  with  the  latter,  especially  after  Russia 
had  failed  to  recognize  an  alliance  of  neutrality  under  arms 
formed  by  Sweden-Norway  and  Denmark.  In  1855  Sweden 
entered  an  agreement  with  France,  promising  not  to  cede 
any  territory  to  Russia  in  case  of  a  conflict.  In  1856  peace 
was  made  at  Paris;  the  only  favor  won  by  Sweden  was 
a  pledge  made  by  Russia  not  to  fortify  the  archipelago  of 
Aland. 

King  Oscar  was  a  very  hard  worker  and  also  fond  of  the 
pleasures  of  life.  His  health  was  injured  through  illness, 
in  1857,  and  he  never  recovered.  The  premature  death  of 
his  second  son.  Prince  Gustavus,  a  talented  composer  and 
highly  popular,  had  a  disastrous  influence  on  him.  King 
Oscar  I.  died  July  8,  1859,  after  a  long  illness,  beloved  by 
the  two  nations  who,  during  his  reign,  had  enjoyed  the 
happiest  epoch  of  their  history. 

Romanticism  in  literature  had  an  important  second  blos- 
som during  the  reign  of  King  Oscar  I.  and  his  successor. 
With  the  exception  of  Runeberg  and  Almquist,  it  offers  no 
name  of  the  very  first  rank.  But  Runeberg,  the  Homer 
of  the  North,  does  not  belong  to  Sweden  alone,  and  Alm- 
quist, the  only  great  Romanticist,  had  made  his  appearance 
during  the  preceding  epoch.  Charles  John  Ludvig  Alm- 
quist was  a  genius  of  great  versatility  and  exceptional  en- 
dowment. He  wrote  with  equal  force  in  all  branches  of 
literature;  besides  the  poet,  dramatist  and  prosaist,  being 
a  good  philologist  and  well  versed  in  a  number  of  practical 
pursuits.  He  anticipated  the  ideas  of  which  George  Sand 
became  a  champion,  and  wrote  charming  peasant  idyls  long 
before  Auerbach  and  Bjcernson.     His  most  important  work 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  389 

is  an  ambiguous  creation,  conceived  somewhat  in  the  form 
of  Boccaccio's  **Decamerone,"  but  much  larger,  and  contain- 
ing productions  in  every  imaginable  artistic  form.  It  is 
called  Tcernrosens  hok  (The  Book  of  the  Wild  Rose). 
Almquist  has  not,  like  Bellman  and  Tegner,  crystallized 
the  Swedish  national  character  in  a  lyrical  form,  but  he 
remains,  in  spite  of  glaring  defects,  the  most  versatile  and 
supremely  gifted  genius  of  Swedish  literature. 

Nybom,  Boettiger,  Malmstroem,  Ssetherberg  and  Strand- 
berg  were  talented  lyric  poets  of  this  epoch.  Von  Braun, 
Sturzen-Becker  and  Sehlstedt  good  humorists,  while  Boer- 
jesson,  Blanche,  John,  Dahlgren  and  Frans  Hedberg  wrote 
successfully  for  the  stage.  Swedish  women  were  destined 
to  win  fame  for  themselves  by  bringing  the  novelistic  form 
to  a  richer  development;  principal  among  whom  were  Fred- 
erica  Bremer,  Sophie  von  Knorring,  Emilie  Carlen  and 
Sophie  Schwartz,  while  the  men  Crusenstolpe,  Sparre,  Mel- 
lin,  Eidderstad  and  Starbaeck  cultivated  the  field  of  his- 
torical fiction,  for  which  Swedish  history  offers  such  a 
wealth  of  appropriate  subjects. 

Swedish  composers  of  note  were  becoming  numerous, 
although  the  field  in  which  they  chiefly  excel  is  the 
rather  limited  one  of  lyrio  song,  the  most  spontaneous 
medium  of  expression  for  the  lyrico-rhetoric  Swedish  tem- 
perament. As  the  composer  of  "lieder"  or  visor ^  Adolphus 
Lindblad,  an  intimate  friend  of  Mendelssohn,  occupies  a 
revered  place  in  the  history  of  musico  Close  to  him  stand 
Crusell,  Nordblom  and  Josephsson,  while  Hseffner,  Otto 
Ldndblad,  one  of  the  noblest  composers  in  this  line.  Prince 
Gustavus  and  Vennerberg  are  famous  principally  for  their 
part  songs. 

The  cultivators  of  dramatic  and  orchestral  composition 


890  HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN 

have  as  yet  been  comparatively  few.  Chief  among  them 
is  Bervald;  further,  Norman  and  Hallstroem.  In  a  later 
contemporary  epoch,  Hallen,  Aulin,  Sjoegren,  Stenhammar 
have  considerably  brightened  this  aspect  of  cultural  develop- 
ment. Gunnar  Vennerberg  occupies  an  honored  place  as 
a  poet,  humorist  and  composer  in  one.  There  seems  to  be  a 
deeply  rooted  tendency  in  the  Swedish  national  tempera- 
ment to  unite  the  various  branches  of  artistic  creation,  which 
would  stamp  it  as  romantic  in  its  very  essence  if  there  did 
not  run  a  vein  of  stunningly  realistic  portrayals  through  the 
works  of  such  composite  nature.  In  the  art  of  Bellman  this 
tendency  has  found  its  highest  exponent.  Bellman  selected 
for  his  subjects  the  life  of  the  lower  middle  classes  in  the 
Swedish  capital  of  his  day.  His  Fredman  sings  of  the  ex- 
periences of  himself  and  his  friendSo  Vennerberg  has 
chosen  the  student's  life  at  the  University  of  Upsala  as  the 
subject  of  his  duets  between  two  studentSj  *'Gluntarne,"  in 
which  are  mirrored  as  faithfully,  and  sometimes  as  artisti- 
cally, as  by  Bellman  the  humorous  and  pathetic  scenes  which 
have  fascinated  the  poet  and  composero 

Swedish  song  for  the  first  time  acquired  universal  fame 
through  Jenny  Lind,  who  has  had  many  successors,  but  no 
peer  as  a  dramatic  singer.  Contemporaneous  with  Jenny 
Lind  were  a  number  of  highly  talented  histrionic  artists, 
principal  among  whom  were  Lars  Hjortsberg,  Nils  William 
Almloef,  Olof  Ulric  Torsslov,  Emilie  Hoegquist  and  Carl 
Georg  Dahlquist.  The  Swedish  stage  has  set  a  good  ex- 
ample for  the  preservation  of  the  highest  standards  of  the 
language,  and  in  this  line  exerted  a  great  cultural  influence. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
Parliamentary  Reform^  Charles  XV 

CHARLES  XV.,  the  eldest  son  of  Oscar  I.,  sues 
ceeded  his  father,  having  for  two  years  presided 
over  the  government  during  king  Oscar's  last  ill- 
ness. King  Charles  was  of  gigantic  stature,  exceedingly- 
handsome  and  of  a  manly  and  noble  bearing.  There  dwelt 
a  fiery  soul  within  him,  conscious  of  its  power,  longing  for 
heroic  deeds  and  in  sympathy  with  all  that  was  noble  in  life 
and  art.  The  king  possessed  an  abundance  of  youthful 
energy  and  vivacity.  He  was  a  passionate  hunter  and  a 
gay  companion,  who  surrounded  himself  with  men  equally 
boisterous  and  gay.  He  was  fond  of  jokes  and  merry  pas- 
times, and  took  no  pains  to  hide  his  weaknesses,  which  were 
of  a  convivial  nature.  In  his  social  intercourse  the  king 
was  exceptionally  open  and  frank,  treating  everybody  alike 
in  a  good-natured,  hearty  manner,  winning  the  whole  heart 
of  his  people.  He  imderstood  better  than  any  king  since 
Charles  XI.  how  to  put  himself  in  cordial  relation  with  the 
masses  of  the  people.  But  fond  of  playing  practical  jokes 
on  high  and  low,  he  did  not  like  to  receive  in  the 
same  measure.  Charles  XV.  was  devoted  to  the  pursuits 
of  art.  Especially  in  his  youth,  he  wrote  poetry  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  landscape  painter  through  his  love 
for  typical  Swedish  sceneries.     Sweden  did  not  at  first  know 

(391) 


893  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

what  to  expect  of  her  new  ruler,  and  no  one  was  able  to  pre- 
dict the  course  of  his  policy.  There  were  fears  that  his 
youthfulness  and  his  fiery  southern  temperament  might  lead 
him  to  feel  satisfied  with  the  exterior  of  things  or  that  he 
might  give  way  to  the  impulses  of  the  moment.  These 
fears  soon  proved  to  be  without  foundation.  The  king  had 
chosen  as  his  maxim  **Land  shall  with  law  be  built,"  from 
the  old  provincial  law  of  Upland,  and  he  remained,  with 
very  rare  exceptions,  true  to  the  constitutional  spirit  of 
these  words.  He  had  the  good  fortune  to  find  highly 
capable  advisers,  in  whose  hands  he  placed  the  details 
of  the  administration,  and,  in  contrast  to  his  father,  was 
satisfied  to  give  his  attention  exclusively  to  matters  of  a 
more  general  importance.  He  gave  his  unreserved  support 
to  his  cabinet,  occupying  a  position  above  all  party  interests. 
Charles  XYc  often  sacrificed,  sometimes  only  after  consider- 
able internal  struggle,  his  own  personal  sympathies  and 
inclinations  at  the  request  of  the  advisers  when  he  saw  that 
the  welfare  of  his  country  and  his  own  royal  dignity  de- 
manded such  a  sacrifice.  On  account  of  this,  his  true  con- 
stitutional spirit,  he  deserved  as  a  ruler  the  blind  adoration 
of  his  people.  His  summer  residence,  the  castle  of  Ulrics- 
dal,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Stockholm,  he  changed  into 
an  artistic  abode,  with  choice  collections  in  various  lines, 
Charles  XVo  had,  in  1850,  married  Princess  Louise  of  the 
Netherlands,  of  the  royal  house  of  OrangOo  Their  daugh- 
ter, Louise,  was  married  to  the  crown  prince  of  Denmark, 
and  is  still  in  life,  while  King  Charles  had  to  suffer  the 
premature  losses  of  his  only  son  and  of  his  consorto 

The  cabinet  which  surrounded  Charles  XV,  was  one 
of  the  strongest  bodies  of  its  kind  that  ever  controlled  the 
government  of  Sweden.     During  his  regency,  Crown  Prince 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  393 

Charles  appointed  Baron  Louis  de  Geer  minister  of  justice 
and  Ludvig  Manderstroem  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  These 
men  continued  their  duties  during  the  reign  of  Charles  XV.j 
while  Gripenstedt,  as  minister  of  finance,  followed  up  his 
beneficent  activity  for  the  emancipation  and  development  of 
the  national  industries.  The  historian,  Frederic  Ferdinand 
Carlson,  had  been  the  teacher  of  King  Charles  and  had 
successfully  continued  the  monumental  work  of  Swedish 
history,  left  unfinished  by  Geijer.  Carlson  occupied,  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  XVc^  the  posi- 
tion of  minister  of  ecclesiastics  (church  and  education),  m 
which  capacity  he  did  great  work  for  the  improvement 
of  educational  affairs.  The  high  schools  and  colleges  were 
reorganized  through  new  regulations  of  1859,  being  the 
work  of  Carlson  before  his  appointment  to  the  cabinet. 
Carlson  also  improved  the  public,  or  common,  schools. 
King  Charles  was  a  warm  friend  of  public  instruction.  In 
one  of  his  speeches  from  the  throne  he  said:  **This  is  my 
ambition  that  a  true  and  living  culture  shall  penetrate  our 
people  and  with  its  blessings  reach  the  humblest  of  its 
cottages." 

The  relations  between  Sweden  and  Norway,  during  the 
first  few  years  of  the  reign  of  Charles  XV.,  were  strainedo 
The  Norwegian  Storthing  once  more  voted  the  abolition  of 
tne  oflBce  of  a  governor-general.  It  was  thought  that  the 
king,  who  earlier,  as  viceroy  of  Norway,  had  spoken  in  a 
spirit  of  acquiescence  upon  this  question,  would  sanction  the 
vote  of  the  Storthing.  But  in  Sweden  great  indignation  was 
felt.  It  was  known  and  understood  that  the  Act  of  Union 
contained  nothing  in  regard  to  the  office  in  question,  but 
was  created  by  a  stipulation  in  the  constitution  of  Norway 
which  admitted  the  possibility  of  its  being  filled  by  a  Swede, 


894  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

The  Norwegian  view  was  that  the  Storthing  had  exclusive 
right  to  decide  the  question,  while  the  Swedish  view  was 
that  it  was  a  question  concerning  the  Union  and  to  be  de- 
cided on  by  the  diets  of  the  two  countries.  Practically  the 
Swedes  were  right  ^  theoretically,  and  from  a  purely  patri° 
ctic  standpoint,  which  considered  necessary  the  develop- 
ment  of  a  perfect  national  independence  even  at  the  expense 
of  the  Union,  the  Norwegians  were  righto  Ankarsverd, 
well  known  since  the  days  of  Charles  XIV. ,  made  a  motion, 
at  the  Swedish  Riksdag  of  1859.  for  the  revision  of  the  Act 
of  Union  on  the  basis  of  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  which  motion 
in  Norway  was  accepted  as  an  insulto  Vc  F,  Dalman  made 
a  motion  that  the  Estates  should  ask  the  king  not  to  render 
a  decision  in  the  question  of  a  Norwegian  governor-general 
before  the  Riksdag  had  had  an  opportunity  to  look  into  the 
international  aspect  of  the  questiouo  Great  was  the  com- 
motion caused  by  this  issue,  both  in  the  diets  and  the  press 
of  the  two  countrieSc  Swedish  pamphlets  were  circulated 
which  accepted  the  possibility  of  a  dissolution  of  the  Union, 
But  in  Norway,  where  the  security  of  a  union  with  Sweden 
had  become  apparent,  especially  during  the  conflict  with 
Russia,  such  utterances  were  repudiatedo  Both  of  the  mo- 
tions in  question  were  passed  by  the  vfour  Estates  of  the 
Riksdag,  but  put  in  such  a  shape  that  a  request  to  have 
a  revision  of  the  Act  of  Union  made  was  sent  up  to  the  king, 
with  the  demand  for  a  royal  proposition  on  that  issue.  The 
king  was  then  asked  to  consider  the  question  of  a  Norwe- 
gian governor-general  in  connection  with  that  revision.  As 
there  was  a  difference  of  opinion  also  in  the  cabinets  of  the 
two  countries,  the  final  decision  rested  with  the  king  alone. 
The  sagacity  and  discernment  of  which  King  Charles  gave 
evidence  saved  the  situation  and  is  worthy  of  praise.     He 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  395 

declared  in  the  Norwegian  cabinet  that  he  could  not  sanc- 
tion the  abolition  of  the  office  of  a  governor-general 
Shortly  afterward,  he  gave  in  the  Swedish  cabinet  as  his 
opinion  the  advisability  of  postponing,  for  the  time  being, 
all  deliberations  of  a  revision  of  the  Act  of  Union„  By 
doing  so,  the  king  quieted  the  high  feelings  in  both  coun- 
tries, and  peace  returned.  It  had  become  apparent  to  both 
Swedes  and  Norwegians  that  the  Union  was  the  result  of 
great  political  foresight  because  it  was  preserved  through 
the  increasing  feeling  of  faith  and  of  the  necessity  of  mu- 
tual protection.  That  great  obscurity  existed  in  regard  to 
the  affairs  regulating  the  Union  had  also  become  evident. 
The  reforms  and  improvements  which  were  effected 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  XV.  were  highly  importanto 
New  criminal  and  maritime  codes  were  made  at  the  Riks- 
dag of  1862,  and  sanctioned  by  the  government.  Through 
the  new  regulations  passed  in  the  same  year  the  foundations 
for  increased  municipal  home  rule  were  laid.  Such  home 
rule  was  as  old  as  the  country  itself,  but,  in  the  same  degree 
as  the  state  organization,  had  attained  a  highw  develop- 
ment, and  the  centralization  of  the  administration  was  real- 
ized; it  had  weakened  and  was  in  peril  of  being  entirely 
lost.  Now  the  time  was  come  for  the  powers  of  state  to 
give  municipal  home  rule  new  strength,  adapting  its  old 
forms  and  creating  new  ones,  in  accordance  with  modern 
requirementSc  Laws  were  made  which  gave  the  towns  the 
right  to  elect  members  to  local  assemblies  (stadsfullmceg- 
ttge\  with  authority  to  act  in  behalf  of  their  communitieSc 
Similar  institutions  (kommunalstcemmor)  were  arranged  for 
the  country  communities.  Landsting  were  instituted  in 
every  governmental  district,  or  Icen^  at  which  representa- 
tives, elected  by  the  people,  were  to  take  action  on  the  pub- 


396  HISTORY,  OF   SWEDEN 

lie  affairs  of  the  district,  especially  on  such  thajb  pertamed 
to  sanitary  conditions,  communications,  etc.  The  condi° 
tions  for  suffrage  and  elective  franchise  in  municipal  affairs 
were  based  on  personal  income.  The  old  class  distinctions 
were  thus  disregarded  and  a  return  made  to  the  still  older 
democratic  institutions  of  the  ancient  Teutonic  communities, 
in  which  every  free  man  is  entitled  to  his  word  and  vote  in 
public  affairs.  But  those  only  are  considered  *'free'*  who 
by  their  work  can  gain  enough  to  pay  their  taxes  in  return 
for  the  privileges  of  a  citizen.  The  church  got  a  representa- 
tion of  its  own  in  the  clerical  assembly  (kyrkomoetet)^  which 
meets  every  fifth  year  and  consists  of  equal  numbers  of  min- 
isters and  laymen. 

The  government  in  the  municipal  reforms  found  a  basis 
for  the  reorganization  of  the  Riksdag.  The  royal  proposi- 
tion for  a  new  parliamentary  representation,  placed  before 
the  Estates  in  1862,  was  built  upon  the  municipal  suffrage 
and  the  Landstings  or  district  assemblies,  the  latter  being 
authorized  to  elect  the  members  of  the  senate,  or  First 
Chamber,  The  old  system  of  representation  corresponded 
as  little  with  the  new  municipal  home  rule  as  with  the  gen- 
eral tendencies  in  politics  and  social  life.  The  nobility  had 
lost  its  old  importance.  It  was  no  longer  advisable  for  the 
clergy  to  take  a  leading  part  in  political  affairSc  A  new 
industrial  class  of  wealth  and  prominence  had  formed  and 
demanded  a  representation  in  the  burgher  class.  The  peas- 
ants had  eve?  since  1809  been  carrying  on  their  agitation  for 
a  reduction  of  taxes  and  abolition  of  the  class  privilegeSc 
They  had  met  with  an  overwhelming  opposition,  which 
would  fall  with  the  old  system  of  representationo  A  par- 
liamentary reform  had  been  fervently  discussed  ever  since 
1840.      The    municipal    home    rule    reforms   of    1862   had 


fflSTORY    OF   SWEDEN  397 

brought  the  question  closer  to  a  solution.  The  burghers 
and  peasants  at  the  Riksdag  of  1860  petitioned  the  govern- 
ment to  present  a  royal  proposition  for  the  reorganization 
of  the  Diet.  Baron  Louis  de  Geer,  the  minister  of  justice, 
was  the  author  of  this  proposition,  which  was  presented  in 
1862  and  placed  on  the  table  until  the  next  Riksdag.  The 
great  question  was  acted  upon  at  the  Riksdag  of  1865. 
There  was  a  great  deal  of  commotion  on  account  of  the 
opposition  which  was  expected  from  the  nobility  and  clergy. 
The  discussions  in  the  periodical  press  and  in  pamphlet  form 
were  lively.  The  country  population  preserved  its  peaceful 
and  sensible  demeanor,  but  the  excitement  in  the  towns  was 
considerable  and  increased  as  the  decision  drew  nearer. 
The  majority  of  towns  and  several  rural  communities  in 
their  close  proximity  sent  deputations  to  Stockholm,  who 
tendered  their  best  wishes  to  the  able  minister  of  jus- 
tice for  the  success  of  his  proposition.  The  commotioa 
in  Stockholm  was  so  great  that  troops  were  ordered 
ready  in  case  of  an  emergency.  The  4th  of  Decem- 
ber the  proposition  was  voted  on  by  the  burghers  and 
peasants.  At  the  question  of  the  speaker,  whether  they 
were  willing  to  accept  the  royal  proposition,  the  peasants 
rose  to  their  feet  in  a  body  and  gave  their  answer  with  one 
laconic  yea.  A  few  of  the  burghers  spoke  against  the  prop- 
osition, but  it  was  carried  also  in  their  Estate,  and  by  an 
overwhelming  majority.  Long  and  heated  discussions  took 
place  among  the  nobility  and  clergy.  The  clergymen  were 
generally  opposed  to  the  parliamentary  reform,  but  feared 
to  be  found  remaining  as  the  only  opponents  in  the  storm  of 
disapproval  which  would  follow.  For  this  reason  they  post- 
poned their  decision  until  the  nobility  had  taken  action  upon 
the  proposition. 


398  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

There  rested  a  spirit  of  real  grandeur  over  the  delibera- 
tions  at  the  Riddarhus  upon  this  occasion,  when  the  question 
of  a  voluntary  surrender  of  the  aristocratic  privileges  was 
to  be  decided.     The  Swedish  nobility  had  its  class  instincts 
and  prejudices,  but  very  rarely  it  had  been  found  lacking  in 
men  of  the  loftiest  patriotism  and  highest  attainments,  ever 
ready  to  take  the  lead  in  the  defence  of  the  independence 
of  their  country  or  to  follow  up  faithfully  the  ambitions  of 
their  great  rulers.     Arrangements  had  been  made  to  allow 
noblemen  from  distant  parts  and  of  very  limited  means  to 
be  present,  if  not  during  the  time  of  the  discussions,  which 
lasted  four  days,  at  least  at  the  casting  of  the  vote.     Never 
in  the  memorable  history  of  the  knightly  chapterhouse  had 
more  eloquent  language  or  loftier  thoughts  been  heard  than 
upon  this  occasion.     Both  supporters  and  opponents  of  the 
royal  proposition  spoke  with  great  sagacity  and  discernment. 
The  former  spoke  of  the  inadvisability  of  a  representation 
by  Estates  and  by  hereditary  privileges,  and  of  the  dangers 
of  a  further  postponement  of  the  needed  reform.     The  latter 
nicely  scrutinized  the  royal  proposition,  which  was  consid- 
ered to  give  too  great  influence  to  the  peasants,  to  weaken 
the  executive  power  and  to  depend  upon  municipal  reforms 
as  yet  untried.     They  further  considered  the  upper  house, 
or  First  Chamber,  too  homogeneous  with  the  Second  to  be 
able  to  exert  the  conservative  or  retaining  power  expected 
from  it.     The  members  of  the  cabinet  all  spoke  with  fervor 
and   persuasive  power  in  favor  of   the  royal   proposition, 
especially  De  Geer,  Gripenstedt  and  Carlson.     The  outcome 
was  that  the  royal  proposition  was  accepted  by  a  vote  of  361 
yeas  against  294  nays.     The  nobility  as  a  class  thus  left  the 
political  arena  voluntarily  and  with  honor.     Now  the  turn 
was  come  to  the  cler^,  who  unanimously  accepted  the  roval 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  399 

proposition  without  further  discussion.  The  result  was 
accepted  with  outbursts  of  enthusiasm  from  all  over  the 
country,  but  especially  from  the  towns.  The  four  Estates 
adjourned  June  22,  1866,  forever,  and  the  law  of  the  new 
system  of  parliamentary  representation  was  sanctioned  the 
same  date. 

The  royal  proposition,  which  became  the  law  of  a  new 
Diet,  is  based  upon  the  principle  of  general  elections.  The 
Biksdag  meets  at  the  commencement  of  every  year.  It  is 
divided  into  two  houses  or  Chambers.  The  members  of  the 
First  Chamber,  or  upper  house,  are  elected  for  a  term  of 
nine  years,  partly  by  the  Landstings,  or  district  assemblies, 
partly  by  the  assemblies  of  towns  which  do  not  take  part 
in  a  Landsting.  Elective  to  the  First  Chamber  are  those 
who  have  a  yearly  income  of  at  least  $1,000  from  some 
business  or  enterprise,  or  as  the  interest  on  a  capital  of  their 
own.  These  members,  or  senators,  must  be  at  least  thirty- 
five  years  of  age;  they  do  not  enjoy  any  compensation. 
The  members  of  the  Second  Chamber,  or  lower  house,  are 
elected  by  every  judicial  district  in  the  country  which  has 
no  more  than  40,000  inhabitants  and  by  every  10,000  in- 
habitants of  a  town.  Towns  which  have  a  population  of 
less  than  10,000  inhabitants  are  joined  into  election  districts 
of  from  6,000  to  12,000  inhabitants.  Elective  to  the  Second 
Chamber  are  those  who  pay  taxes  on  an  income  of  at  least 
$200  a  year  and  who  are  twenty-five  years  of  age.  These 
members  are  compensated  for  the  time  spent  at  the  Riks- 
dag. The  ordinary  Riksdag,  which  meets  every  year,  lasts 
for  a  period  of  at  least  four  months.  The  extraordinary 
Riksdag  is  called  by  the  king  whenever  he  finds  it  neces- 
sary. The  members  of  the  cabinet  are  elective  as  members 
of  the  Riksdag,  and  should,  during  all  sessions,  be  present 


400  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

at  the  deliberations  of  the  Chambers.  The  standing  com- 
mittees remain  the  same  as  during  the  time  of  the  old  sys- 
tem. Special  and  temporary  committees  are  appointed 
when  considered  necessary.  When  the  two  Chambers  end 
in  a  conflicting  vote  upon  one  and  the  same  subject,  the 
committee  which  prepared  it  for  discussion  should  try  to 
obtain  a  satisfactory  solution.  If  such  fails,  the  question 
is  dropped  for  that  year.  The  expenses  of  state,  the  state 
appropriations  and  the  management  of  the  national  bank, 
when  involved,  form  exceptions  to  this  rule  and  are  voted 
upon  by  both  Chambers  together,  the  majority  of  votes 
from  both  making  the  decision. 

A  new  era  in  Swedish  history  opens  up  with  the  accept- 
ance of  the  parliamentary  reform.  The  constitution  itself 
had  suffered  no  change,  except  in  points  of  contact  with  the 
new  rules  of  the  Riksdag.  But  the  powers  of  state  no 
longer  held  to  each  other  the  same  position  as  of  yore.  The 
government  hitherto  had,  in  the  very  division  into  four 
Estates,  a  support  against  powerful  class  and  party  in- 
terests. An  equally  solid  support  was  not  to  be  expected 
from  a  Riksdag  of  only  two  Chambers,  which  in  questions 
of  state  appropriations  is  practically  onOc  For  this  reason 
many  would  have  preferred  the  establishment  of  a  system 
which,  instead  of  abolishing  the  mediaeval  arrangement  of 
four  Estates,  would  have  added  as  many  classes  as  there 
are  really  extant  in  the  modern  state,  to  gain  the  desired 
equilibrium  through  a  manifold  and  dynamically  operating 
representation.  As  things  shaped  themselves  after  the  two 
Chamber  system,  the  government  ought  more  than  ever 
to  have  a  conservative,  retaining  power  in  order  to  preserve 
the  proper  balance.  But  such  was  not  the  case,  for  the 
Biksdag  had  been  placed  in  a  position  to  watch  and  control 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  401 

the  executive  power  much  closer  than  before,  thanks  to  its 
authority  to  fix  for  each  year  the  appropriations  and  ex- 
penditures of  the  state.  The  stipulation  that  the  members 
of  the  cabinet  are  to  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
Chambers  gives  another  pillar  of  strength  to  the  Riksdag. 
If  the  ministers  of  state  are  to  exert  any  influence  npon  the 
decisions  of  the  Riksdag,  it  is  requisite  to  have  its  full  con- 
fidence. The  king  is  forced  to  select  for  his  cabinet  such 
members  as  are  supposed  to  have  an  influence  with  the 
representatives  of  the  people.  The  influence  of  the  Riksdag 
has  been  steadily  increasing  ever  since  1867. 

While  the  issue  of  a  parliamentary  reform  occupied  the 
attention  of  all  public-spirited  men,  the  interest  in  the  polit- 
ical situation  of  Europe  was  hardly  less  intensoo  The  sym- 
pathy with  the  unhappy  Poles  was  almost  feverish.  In 
1863  two  motions  were  made  at  the  Riksdag  to  petition  the 
government  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  restoration  of  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  by  means  of  diplomatic  intervention. 
The  position  of  the  government  was  a  difl&cult  one.  The 
complications  between  Denmark  and  Germany  had  recom- 
menced, and  it  was  important  to  stand  in  good  relations  to 
Russia.  The  Swedish  public  did  everything  to  make  these 
relations  precarious,  by  demonstrations  of  various  kinds  in 
favor  of  Poland,  warlike  newspaper  articles  and  subscrip- 
tions of  money  to  the  leaders  of  the  revolt.  Thanks  to  the 
sagacity  and  tactful  demeanor  of  Manderstrcem  and  the 
common  sense  of  the  Riksdag  the  motions  in  question  were 
defeated  and  a  dangerous  conflict  avoided.  Complications 
of  a  more  serious  nature  arose  on  account  of  the  reopened 
conflict  between  Denmark  and  Germany.  The  Danish  uov* 
ernment  had  failed  in  its  efforts  to  make  a  satisfactory 
arrangement  in  the  relations  between  the  crown  and  the 


40a  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Kolstein.  The  Germans  repeatedly 
mixed  themselves  up  in  the  interior  affairs  of  Denmark,  and 
the  Danes  themselves  were  divided  into  several  parties. 
King  Frederic  VII.  at  last  concluded  to  give  up  the  idea 
of  gathering  in  the  duchies  as  integral  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
satisfied  to  sacrifice  the  ultimate  connection  of  Holstein  and 
Lauenburg  with  the  crown,  but  resolved  to  connect  the 
originally  Danish  Schleswig  with  Denmark.  The  purely 
German  parts  were,  through  the  so-called  "March  Patent"  of 
1863,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  monarchy,  while  Schles- 
wig was  reunited  with  it,  according  to  the  constitution.  This 
policy  was  approved  by  the  Scandinavian  party  in  Sweden 
and  Norway,  supported  by  Swedish  diplomacy,  and,  in  the 
first  place,  by  Charles  XV.  himself.  King  Charles  was 
inspired  by  general  sympathy  with  the  Scandinavian  move- 
ment and  by  personal  friendship  for  Frederic  VII.  to  follow 
up  the  Scandinavian  policy  of  his  father.  The  two  Scan- 
dinavian monarchs  met  twice  during  the  summer  of  1863 
and  influenced  the  Swedish-Norwegian  and  Danish  cabinets 
to  draw  the  outline  of  a  treaty  of  defence  on  the  basis  of  the 
river  Eider  as  the  Danish  boundary  to  the  south.  The  Dan- 
ish government  made  the  proposition  for  a  new  constitution 
according  to  which  Schleswig  was  to  be  united  to  Denmark. 
This  was  contrary  to  the  promise  made  by  King  Frederic 
to  the  German  powers  in  1852.  The  proposition  for  a  new 
constitution  was  placed  before  the  Danish  Diet  and  acceptedo 
Two  days  later,  November  15,  1863,  King  Frederic  suddenly 
died,  before  he  had  sanctioned  the  new  law.  This  was  a 
aevere  blow.  The  popular  king  left  his  beloved  people  in  a 
most  inopportune  moment,  fraught  with  peril  and  disastrous 
mistakes.  The  people  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  renewed 
aa  old  contention  in  regard  to  the  right  of  succession.     The 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  403 

new  Danish  king.  Christian  IX.,  gave  in  to  the  pressure 
brought  to  bear  on  him  by  his  cabinet  and  the  inhabitant* 
of  Copenhagen.  He  signed  the  new  constitution,  which 
gave  to  the  German  powers  a  valid  excuse  to  interfere. 
The  Prussian  and  Austrian  troops  crossed  the  river  Eider  to 
make  good  the  agreements  of  1852. 

The  Swedish-Norwegian  government  was  placed  in  an 
embarrassing  position.  The  alliance  of  defence  that  was 
planned  was  to  a  great  extent  based  upon  the  relations  of 
personal  friendship  between  Charles  XVo  and  Frederic  VII. 
Sweden  was  not  legally  pledged  to  shield  Denmark  as  a 
consequence  of  the  acceptance  of  the  new  constitution.  But 
Sweden  had  taken  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  deliberations, 
for  which  reason  a  change  of  policy  could  not  be  made  v/ith- 
out  considerable  difficulty.  The  liberal  organs  of  the  Swed- 
ish press,  headed  by  "Aftonbladet,"  whose  editor  was 
August  Sohlman,  did  everything  in  their  power  to  make 
such  a  change  an  impossibility.  But  Sweden  was  not  pre* 
pared  to  make  war  on  two  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe, 
especially  as  no  other  power  was  willing  to  join  in  an  alli- 
ance in  behalf  of  Denmark.  The  change  must  be  made;  and 
was  effected,  principally  because  of  the  persuasive  arguments 
and  resolute  demeanor  of  Gripenstedt.  King  Charles  re- 
solved to  take  the  painful  measures  of  a  retreat.  The 
standpoint  of  his  government  he  gave  to  the  Riksdag  in  the 
following  words:  "It  cannot  be  expected  from  us  that  we 
should  place  our  sword  on  the  scale  of  justice  without  con- 
sidering if  the  object  can  be  attained  with  the  resources  at 
our  command."  It  was  a  supreme  sacrifice  that  Charles 
XV.  made  when,  for  the  safety  of  his  countries,  he  was 
forced  to  draw  back  the  hand  of  support  and  comradeship 
which  he  had  offered  a  brother  in  distress.     The  noble- 


«04  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

hearted  king,  ill  one  of  his  poems,  has  ^ven  a  toocbing 

expression  of  the  sorrow  he  felt  in  being  unable  to  assist 
Denmark  in  her  hour  of  peril.  King  Charles  might,  with 
proper  resources  at  his  command,  have  proved  a  formidable 
enemy.  He  had  given  evid^ice  of  possessing  all  the  quali- 
ties requisite  for  the  make-up  of  a  great  general,  without 
doubt  an  inheritance  from  his  two  grandfathers.  Prince 
Bernadotte  and  Eugene  Beauharnais.  A  few  hundred 
Swedish  and  Norwegian  volunteers  took  an  honorable  part 
in  the  Danish  war,  which  was  the  only  practical  result  of 
the  Scandinavian  policy.  The  Swedish  press  was  violent 
in  its  attacks  upon  the  government  for  its  change  of  policy. 
In  March,  1864,  the  mob  of  Stockholm  assailed  the  resi- 
dences of  Manderstrcem,  Qripenstedt  and  other  cabinet 
members,   breaking  the  windows  with  stones. 

Poor  Denmark  was  left  alone.  Napoleon  IIIc  made  the 
mistake  of  not  attempting  to  defeat  Prussia  before  she  had 
reached  her  climax  of  strength.  He  was  tied  up  with  his 
Mexican  adventure  and  unwilling  to  help  Denmarko 
Charles  XV  could  not  endure  to  see  Denmark  thus  de- 
sorted.  Privately  he  offered  Christian  IX.  an  alliance 
which  stipulated  that  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms 
should  be  joined  into  a  union  with  one  common  foreign 
policy  and  common  defence.  Charles  was  also  willing  to 
make  the  succession  one,  if  necessary.  This  alliance  was  to 
embrace  only  such  parts  of  Denmark  which  were  not  to 
enter  the  German  union.  Sweden- Norway  would  do  their 
utmost  to  prohibit  a  separation  between  Denmark  and 
Schleswig.  Denmark  refused  to  accept  this  offer.  Her  lead- 
ing statesman,  Monrad,  held  stubbornly  to  the  idea  of  an  un- 
divided Danish  monarchy.  For  this  reason,  Denmark  was 
for  a  second  time  abandoned  to  fight  out  alone  her  uneven 


HISIORY    OF   SWEDEN  i05 

battle.  It  ended  in  the  loss  of  Holstein,  Lauenbargp  and  the 
greater  part  of  Schleswig,  through  the  treaty  of  Vienna, 
October  30,  1864.  In  Denmark  a  hard  feeling  against  the 
Swedes  and  Norwegians  sprang  up  as  a  consequence  of 
the  disastrous  war  fought  without  allies;  and  the  Scan- 
dinavian policy  and  enthusiasm  had  received  a  blow  from 
which  they  have  never  fully  recovered  Charles  XVo  did  all 
in  his  power  to  revive  them.  He  had  the  pleasure  of  uniting 
the  efforts  of  Sweden,  Norway  and  Denmark  in  a  peaceful 
work  of  great  significance,  the  first  Scandinavian  Exposi- 
tion of  Industry  and  Art,  which  was  opened  at  Stockholm 
in  June,  1866.  The  consequence  was  a  perfect  Norwegian 
conquest  of  Sweden,  in  a  cultured  sense=  The  painters 
Tidemand  and  Gude  captured  the  prizes.  The  composers 
Kierulf  and  Nordraak  took  the  lead  in  song  and  musicc 
Ibsen  and  Bjornson  became  the  craze  in  literature.  The 
literary  contact  with  Norway  was  begun  in  1861s  when 
Lorenz  Dietriechson  was  appointed  a  decent  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala,  and  for  the  first  time  made  the  contem- 
porary Norwegian  and  Danish  poets  acquainted  in  Sweden, 
What  Sweden  received  from  Norway  was  a  quaint^  late- 
born  Romanticism  of  a  strong  national  flavoro  When  this 
Romanticism  was  changed  into  stern  Realism  its  influence 
upon  Swedish  culture,  especially  her  literature,  was  only 
increased,  Swedish  literature  receiving  strong  realistic  im- 
pulses from  the  neighboring  Scandinavian  countries.  The 
Norwegian  influence  ceased,  when  the  Swedes  at  last  be- 
came aware  that  there  was  in  it  a  deeply  pessimistic  trait, 
akin  to  the  stern  Norwegian  and  Scotch  Christianity,  which 
is  incompatible  with  the  Swedish  national  temperament, 
sUghtly  inclined  to  melancholy,  but  of  a  robust  and  irrepres- 
sible desire  to  live  and  enjoy. 


406  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Charles  XV.  followed  up  his  practical  Scandinavian 
policy  by  marrying  his  only  daughter  Louise  to  Crown 
Prince  Frederic  of  Denmark.  King  Charles  was  as  unsuc- 
cessful in  his  noble  efforts  to  unite  more  closely  his  two 
kingdoms  as  in  his  foreign  policy.  The  king  allowed  some 
time  to  pass  in  order  to  let  the  ill-feeling,  caused  by  the  con- 
flict of  1859  and  1860,  die  out.  In  Fobruary,  1865,  he 
considered  that  the  moment  had  arrived  to  institute  the 
review  of  the  Act  of  UnioUo  He  appointed  a  committee 
of  Swedes  and  Norwegians  to  prepare  the  proposition  of  a 
new  Act  of  Union,  on  the  basis  of  perfect  equality  and 
right  to  decide  separately  all  matters,  except  such  pertain- 
ing to  the  Union.  The  committee  performed  the  work,  but 
their  proposition  was  defeated  at  the  Norwegian  Storthing  of 
I87I5  at  the  instigation  of  John  Sverdrup  and  K.  Motzfeldt. 
The  Swedish  Riksdag  for  this  reason  also  failed  to  accept 
it.  At  the  close  of  the  Riksdag,  King  Charles  made  the 
following  utterance  in  regard  to  the  defeated  proposition: 
*'What  has  now  failed  to  attain  success  shall  perhaps  win 
out  without  difficulty  when  the  two  nations  once  have 
learned  to  place  confidence  in  each  other,  as  the  result  of  a 
more  intimate  intercoursCc*'  He  saw  with  great  satisfac- 
tion tho  completion  of  a  railway  which  forever  unites  the 
Swedish  and  the  Norwegian  capitals  with  ties   of  steel. 

The  administration  of  Charles  XV.  persevered  in  its 
liberal  policy  concerning  questions  of  economy  and  juris- 
prudence. This  was  particularly  noticeable  in  commercial 
matters.  The  idea  of  free  trade  had  won  ascendency  in 
Europe.  Napoleon  III.  had  entered  a  treaty  of  commerce 
with  England,  in  strict  opposition  to  the  protective  system. 
Other  nations  were  one  by  one  admitted  into  the  free-trade 
system  by  means  of  new  treaties.     Sweden  made  a  treaty 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  407 

of  commerce  and  navigation  in  1865o  This  step  was  se- 
verely criticised  by  the  Riksdag  of  1865-1866,  both  from 
a  constitutional  and  financial  point  of  vieWo  Gripenstedt 
was  accused  of  leading  the  way  over  demolished  industries, 
but  he  defended  his  position  with  great  eloquenceo  The 
treaty  was  ratified  in  spite  of  the  powerful  opposition  in  the 
Riksdag,  The  press  condemned  both  the  treaty  and  the 
government  in  the  most  violent  language. 

The  first  Riksdag  of  the  new  parliamentary  system  met 
January  19,  1867.  The  **Landstings"  had  sent  to  the 
First  Chamber  the  most  prominent  men  of  the  country.  It 
was  a  truly  representative  gathering,  a  house  of  peers 
elected  by  the  people.  Lagerbielke,  the  landtmarshal  of  the 
preceding  Riksdag,  was  appointed  speakero  The  Second 
Chamber  counted  a  larger  number  of  peasants  as  repre- 
sentatives than  of  any  other  class,  Anton  Nicolaus  Sund- 
berg,  then  bishop  of  Carlstad,  now  archbishop  of  Sweden, 
was  made  speaker  of  the  Second  Chamber.  The  power  of 
the  peasants  made  itself  felt  at  once.  There  was  formed 
a  strong  and  influential  party,  the  landtmanna,  or  country- 
men's party,  consisting  of  small  landowners.  The  peas- 
ants constituted  the  majority,  but  the  party  also  counted 
many  titled  and  untitled  country  gentlemen  in  interests 
united  with  them.  The  founder  of  the  party  was  Count 
Arvid  Rutger  Posse,  later  minister  of  state.  Emil  Key  and 
the  peasants  Charles  Ifvarsson  and  Liss  Olof  Larsson  were 
among  the  leaders  of  the  party.  The  policy  of  the  Landt- 
manna  party  demanded  simplification  of  the  administration, 
economy  in  the  matter  of  appropriations  and  a  solution  of 
the  questions  of  the  defence  and  taxation  in  harmony  with 
the  interests  of  the  owners  of  the  soil.  The  party  followed 
up  its  policy  with  stern  consistency  from  Riksdag  to  Riks- 


408  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

dag,  until  in  perfect  control  of  the  whole  government.  The 
opposition  consisted  of  "the  Intelligence*'  or  intellectual 
party,  which,  without  a  solid  constitution  or  a  fixed  policy, 
has  in  vain  fought  the  spreading  influence  and  power  of  the 
Landtmanna  partyc  The  latter  has  gone  almost  too  far  in 
its  endeavors  for  economical  reform,  but  has  also  given 
evidence  of  appreciation  of  the  material  needs  of  a  cultural 
development,  appropriating  large  sums  for  the  benefit  of 
science  and  educatioUo 

The  army  question  was  the  most  important  issue  of 
Swedish  politicSe  The  events  of  1866  had  made  it  evident 
that  a  strengthening  of  the  defences  was  necessary.  King 
Charles  was  anxious  to  have  the  question  solved  in  a  satis- 
factory manner,  finding  therein  the  only  reliable  safeguard 
for  the  future  independence  of  Sweden  It  was  apparent 
feiat  any  attempts  to  settle  the  question  in  accordance  with 
the  system  adopted  by  Charles  XI.  would  be  devoid  of 
resulto  It  was  based  upon  direct  taxation  of  the  soil  and 
must  be  opposed  by  the  strong  majority  of  small  landown- 
ers of  the  Landtmanna  party.  A  compromise  policy  was 
for  this  reason  begun  in  1867,  the  question  of  an  abolition 
of  the  land  tax  being  connected  with  the  army  question, 
although  the  two  ought  to  have  had  no  connectioUo  The 
question  was  started  with  promises  of  a  reduction  or  exemp- 
tion of  the  duties  of  the  old  army  system  as  compensation 
for  the  acceptance  of  a  new  arrangement  for  the  country's 
defence.  The  government  made  an  army  proposition  to  the 
Kiksdag  of  1869,  promising  several  reductions  to  the  land- 
owners who  furnished  soldiers  according  to  the  old  sys- 
tem (indelningsverket).  The  proposition  was  prepared 
by  a  committee,  of  which  the  new  minister  of  war,  Gus- 
tavus  Rudolph  Abelin,  was  the  chairman.     It  was  based 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  409 

upon  the  preservation  of  the  old  system  for  the  furnish- 
ing of  the  body  force  of  oflQcers  and  men.  The  larger 
force  was  to  be  provided  for  through  militia.  The  militia 
was  to  be  drilled  in  the  neighborhood  of  their  various  homes 
during  sixty  days  of  the  year.  The  proposition  was  not 
accepted.  The  militia  compulsory  service,  as  the  duty  of 
every  citizen  for  the  defence  of  his  country,  had  nothing 
to  do  with  the  regular  army  as  provided  by  the  stipulations 
of  the  old  system.  But  the  majority  of  the  Second  Cham- 
ber confused  the  two  and  refused  to  allow  the  establishment 
of  the  former  on  a  wider  basis,  because  the  offers  made  to 
reduce  the  burdens  of  the  old  system  did  not  appear  to  them 
liberal  enough.  In  1871  another  proposition  was  made  by 
Abelin  to  the  Riksdag,  It  was  similar  to  the  first  one,  and 
its  cause  was  eloquently  pleaded  by  Abelin,  Axel  Gustavus 
AdlercreutZj.  minister  of  justice,  Peter  Axel  Bergstroem, 
minister  of  civil  service,  and  Gunnar  Vennerberg,  minister 
of  ecclesiastics.  They  warned  against  the  mistake  of  attach- 
ing impossible  conditions  to  the  acceptance  of  the  proposi- 
tion. The  proposition  for  an  extended  militia  service  was 
accepted  by  both  Chambers.  But  when  the  Second  Cham- 
ber raised,  as  a  condition  for  its  acceptance,  the  suspension, 
for  fifteen  years,  of  the  old  system  which  provided  for  the 
regular  army,  the  government  found  it  impossible  to  grant 
this,  and  the  proposition  was  dropped. 

King  Charles  was  grieved  and  vexed  with  the  fate  of  the 
army  bills.  The  Franco  Prussian  war  made  it,  in  his  opin- 
ion, of  added  importance  to  Sweden  to  have  her  defences 
remodelled.  He  called  an  extraordinary  session  of  the 
Riksdag,  in  the  autumn  of  1871,  when  Abelin  brought  out 
a  third  proposition.  It  was  chiefly  of  the  same  contents 
as  the  preceding  ones.     But  a  remarkable  change  in  the 

XX 18 


410  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

public  opinion  had  now  taken  place,  as  to  the  advisability 
of  retaining  the  old  system.  Men  who  looked  upon  the 
question  more  from  a  military  than  an  economic  point  of 
view  entertained  doubts  as  to  the  practical  value  of  the  old 
regular  army  as  the  body  force  of  a  compulsory  militia. 
Military  officers  commenced  to  attack  the  old  system  as  the 
basis  of  a  new  army.  The  Landtmanna  party  persevered 
in  the  request  for  an  abolition  of  the  old  system,  and  this 
killed  the  army  bill  at  the  extraordinary  Riksdag. 

Together  with  the  request  for  an  abolition  of  the  old 
army  system,  demands  for  redemption  from  other  burdens 
placed  upon  the  owners  of  the  soil  made  themselves  heard. 
The  land-tax  was  the  principal  one  of  these  burdens  and 
caused  as  much  difference  of  opinion  as  the  army  system. 
The  Landtmanna  party  considered  the  land-tax  to  be  of  the 
same  nature  originally  as  other  taxes,  which  ought  to  be 
more  evenly  distributed  and  shared  by  all  classes  in  the 
same  proportion.  The  Intelligence  party  was  of  the  opinion 
that  the  land-tax  in  the  course  of  time  had  come  to  be 
rents  or  mortgages  which  always  were  taken  into  considera- 
tion at  the  exchange  of  property,  as  reducing  the  stock  value 
of  the  property  in  question.  To  free  a  present  generation 
from  the  payment  of  land-tax,  was  in  the  eyes  of  the  opposi- 
tion, an  injustice  to  the  other  classes  whose  taxes  thereby 
were  to  be  increased.  The  Landtmanna  party  had,  in  1869, 
commenced  an  agitation  for  the  reduction  of  the  land-tax 
for  shorter  periods  and  on  a  small  scale  at  first,  but  with 
increasing  demands  at  every  new  Riksdag. 

The  government,  whose  members  had  been  the  cham- 
pions of  parliamentary  reform,  was  soon  disregarded  by  the 
triumphant  party,  while  its  old  opponents  never  forgot  it. 
The  earlier  advisers  of  the  king  retired  one  by  one  when 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  411 

they  saw  their  influence  in  the  Riksdag  vanish.  King 
Charles  himself  took  the  defeat  of  the  army  bills  deep  at 
heart.  His  health  commenced  to  fail  in  1871,  and  when  his 
faithful  consort  died,  in  the  same  year,  having  exposed  her 
own  health  in  her  attempts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
king,  the  latter  grew  worse.  After  a  trip  abroad  for  his 
health,  King  Charles  XV.  died  at  Malmoe,  September  18, 
1872,  deeply  mourned  by  the  two  nations.  In  the  following 
year  his  youngest  brother  Nicolaus  August,  duke  of  Dale- 
carlia,  died,  leaving  only  two  of  the  children  of  Oscar 
I»,  Oscar  Frederic,  duke  of  East  Gothland,  and  Princess 
Eugenie.  The  history  of  Charles  XV.  carries  the  principal 
traits  of  his  character.  His  sweeping  reforms  in  social, 
political  and  economical  matters,  and  his  great  plans  for  the 
future,  even  if  sometimes  immature,  or  high-strung,  were 
always  characterized  by  loftiness  of  purpose.  A  typical 
Swede  both  in  his  merits  and  his  faults,  this  was  the  secret 
of  the  immense  popularity  of  King  Charles,  which  always 
followed  him,  although  he  never  sought  it. 

The  philosopher  Christian  Jacob  Bostroem  is  the  most 
popular  of  Swedish  thinkers  and  the  first  who  founded  a 
national  system  and  school  of  philosophy,  idealistic  and 
rational,  and  in  strict  opposition  to  the  system  of  Hegel. 
Bostroem  was  born  in  Pitea,  in  1797,  was  the  teacher  of  the 
sons  of  Oscar  I.,  and  succeeded  the  able  philosopher  Samuel 
Grubbe,  a  talented  follower  of  Hoeijer,  as  professor  of  philos- 
ophy at  the  University  of  Upsala.  Bostroem  was  a  highly 
fascinating  and  suggestive  teacher,  while  he  neglected  his 
literary  production,  which  is  neither  exhaustive  nor  quite 
representative  of  his  philosophy.  He  exerted  a  considerable 
influence  by  his  outline  of  a  philosophical  state,  which 
pleased  the  conservatives,  while  a  much  more  widespread 


412  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

and  lasting  impression  was  produced  by  his  criticism  of  the 
doctrines  of  a  hell  and  a  devil.  A  whole  literature  sprang 
into  life,  discussing  vehemently  the  existence  or  non-exist- 
ence of  the  nend.  To  this  literature  and  the  works  and 
writings  of  Bostroem  is  to  be  credited  the  spirit  of  religious 
tolerance  which  characterized  life  and  literature  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  XV.  It  fostered  in  the  cultured  few  a 
leaning  toward  Unitarianism  or  Theosophy,  while  it  gave 
rise  to  a  shallow  materialism  and  religious  indifference  in 
the  less  cultured  classes  and  individuals. 

The  artistic,  literary  and  musical  life  bore  a  decided 
resemblance  to  the  intellectually  interested  but  dilettantic 
king.  Charles  XV.  was  surrounded  by  a  great  number  of 
painters  who,  although  possessing  a  good  deal  of  talent, 
succeeded  only  in  the  smaller  field  of  genre  painting.  Re- 
markable exceptions  are  J.  F.  Hceckert,  Marcus  Larsson 
and  C.  H.  L.  D'Uncker,  who  possessed  sterling  genius  and 
acquired  great  fame.  Several  promising  painters,  like 
George  von  Rosen,  developed  later  the  full  scope  of  their 
power.  The  sculptor  J.  P.  Molin  was  highly  talented,  a 
worthy  follower  of  B.  E.  Fogelberg,  who  had  enriched 
Swedish  art  with  a  number  of  highly  important  sculptures. 

In  the  world  of  letters,  the  spirit  of  dilettantism  was 
more  strongly  felt  than  in  art,  Swedish  literature,  after  its 
several  glorious  epochs,  experiencing  one  of  its  most  stag- 
nant periods.  A  veritable  giant  among*  pygmies  was  Victor 
Rydberg,  whose  remarkable  novel,  "The  Last  Athenian," 
appeared  in  1859,  but  whose  principal  productivity  as  a  poet 
and  scientist  belongs  to  a  later  period.  So  do,  to  a  great 
extent,  the  best  works  of  the  poets  Eduard  Beckstrcem,  also 
an  able  dramatist,  and  Count  Carl  Snoilsky.  Zacharias 
Topelius,  the  Walter  Scott  and  Hans  Christian  Andersen 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  413 

of  Finland,  must  be  mentioned  here.  Writing  in  the  Swed- 
ish language,  and  for  his  principal  work  using  subjects  of 
Swedish  history,  he  was  as  highly  beloved  in  Sweden  as  in 
Finland.  His  excellent  series  of  historical  novels,  called 
**The  Surgeon's  Stories,"  have  been  translated  into  several 
languages.  His  juvenile  stories  are  not  characterized  by  the 
same  degree  of  inventive  power  as  are  the  tales  by  Andersen, 
but  Topelius  had  the  latter's  ability  of  placing  himself  in 
intimate  contact  with  the  pure  minds  of  all  ages. 

In  the  most  national  of  Swedish  cultural  elements,  the 
song,  the  epoch  of  dilettantism  found  its  most  beautiful  and 
lasting  expressions.  The  quartet  and  chorus  singing  at  the 
universities  of  Upsala  and  Lund  was  cultivated  to  the  high- 
est standards  of  excellence  and  had  a  splendid  repertory  in 
the  songs  of  Otto  Lindblad,  Vennerberg,  Prince  Gustavus, 
Josephsson,  Crusell,  Cronhamn,  etc.  The  Upsala  students 
caused  a  great  sensation  by  their  singing  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion of  1867,  and  have  repeated  their  successes  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1878,  and  in  Berlin  in  1898.  Swedish  quartets 
of  men's  and  women's  voices  have  travelled  all  over  the 
world  and  made  a  lasting  fame  for  this  minor  but  bewitch- 
ing branch  of  musical  art.  As  dramatic  singers  of  the  first 
rank,  Louise  Michaeli  and  Christine  Nilsson  have  been  the 
worthy  successors  of  Jenny  Lind.  To  this  period,  as  well 
as  to  the  next,  belongs  Elisa  Hvasser,  the  greatest  and  most 
versatile  actress  Sweden  has  ever  had.  This  artist  was 
equally  at  home  in  the  farce  and  melodrama,  but  excelled 
in  the  tragic  parts  of  the  Shakespeare,  Schiller,  and  Ibsen 
repertory.  Indispensable  in  their  positions  at  the  Royal  The- 
atre of  Stockholm,  Michaeli,  the  songstress,  and  Hvasser, 
the  tragedienne,  did  not  travel,  thereby  losing  the  fame  a 
world  would  have  been  only  too  glad  to  give  them. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
Progress  and  Prosperity  —  Oscar  II 

OSCAR  II.  ascended  the  throne  at  a  moment  when 
universal  peace  was  restored  after  the  great  con- 
flict between  France  and  Germany,  and  when  an 
age  of  commercial  prosperity  for  Sweden  seemed  to  have 
begun.  King  Oscar  had  received  the  same  superior  educa- 
tion as  his  older  brothers,  is  as  brilliantly  gifted  as  they 
were  and  of  a  more  scholarly  mind.  As  a  writer  on  scien- 
tific subjects,  a  poet  and  an  orator,  Oscar  II.  had  distin- 
guished himself  before  his  succession  to  the  throne.  The 
new  king  offered  the  best  of  securities  for  a  sound  adminis- 
tration in  his  thorough  and  versatile  knowledge,  wide  ex- 
perience in  public  affairs,  and  rich  and  harmonious  endow- 
ment. Oscar  II.  still  did  not  find  it  easy  to  gain  the  love 
and  admiration  of  the  Swedish  people,  of  which  he  is  so 
eminently  worthy.  He  was  the  successor  of  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  rulers  that  the  country  ever  saw,  but  King  Oscar 
has  lived  to  see  his  own  popularity  almost  outrival  that  of 
bis  predecessor.  King  Oscar  is,  at  seventy,  a  handsome, 
spirited  gentleman,  with  that  dignity  which  age,  rare  attain- 
ments, high  intelligence  and  a  noble  soul  grant  their  com- 
mon possessor.  This  the  most  learned  and  popular  mon- 
arch of  Europe  is  of  a  tall,  commanding  figure,  six  feet 
(414) 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  415 

three  inches  in  height,  of  a  handsome,  expressive  face,  with 
cheeks  of  a  ruddy  color  and  mild  blue  eyes. 

Oscar  II.  has  shown  great  discernment  in  his  arrange- 
ment of  dynastic  matters.  Himself  married  to  the  fer- 
vently religious  Princess  Sophie  of  Nassau,  the  king  has 
married  his  oldest  son.  Crown  Prince  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
to  Princess  Victoria  of  Bade,  a  granddaughter  of  Emperor 
William  I.  of  Germany,  and  a  great-granddaughter  of 
Gustavus  IV.  of  Sweden.  His  third  son,  Prince  Charles, 
duke  of  West  Gothland,  is  married  to  Princess  Ingeborg  of 
Denmark,  a  granddaughter  of  Charles  XV.  of  Sweden. 
These  unions  are  well  calculated  to  accentuate  the  increas- 
ing political,  commercial  and  cultural  intimacy  with  Ger- 
many, the  Scandinavian  policy  of  his  predecessor  and  the 
desire  of  King  Oscar  to  see  the  descendants  of  the  old  royal 
line  of  Sweden  as  heirs  to  the  crown.  In  giving  his  consent 
to  the  marriage  of  his  second  son.  Prince  Oscar  (Berna- 
dotte),  to  Lady  Ebba  Munck,  of  the  Swedish  nobility.  King 
Oscar  has  given  evidence  of  the  fact  that  he  is  not  a  match- 
maker regardless  of  the  feelings  of  the  parties  involved. 
Prince  Oscar,  formerly  Duke  of  Gothland,  upon  renouncing 
his  share  of  inheritance  to  the  two  thrones,  was  allowed  to 
marry  the  choice  of  his  heart.  King  Oscar  has  tried  to  heal 
the  wounds  of  the  past  by  opening  the  vaults  of  the  church 
of  Riddarholm  to  the  sarcophagi  of  Gustavus  IV.  and  his 
son,  and  by  giving  Queen  Carola  of  Saxony,  the  only  living 
granddaughter  of  the  former,  repeated  proofs  of  esteem  and 
considerate  distinction. 

King  Oscar  with  his  crowns  had  received  as  an  inheri- 
tance two  important  problems  to  be  solved — the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  Swedish  army  and  the  settlement  of  the  diflS- 
culties  in  the  relations  between  the  two  states  of  the  Union. 


416  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

The  latter  has  not  yet  found  a  satisfactory  solution,  al- 
though the  king  has  devoted  to  it  his  most  strenuous  atten- 
tion and  the  best  of  his  efforts,  in  honest  application  to  his 
royal  motto:   "The  Weal  of  the  Brother  Nations." 

The  reorganization  of  the  Swedish  army  was  not  effected 
until  after  twenty  years  of  parliamentary  struggle.  The 
road  of  a  compromise  policy  which  was  opened  in  1867  was 
followed  up  at  the  Riksdag  of  1873,  in  all  the  long  chain 
of  years  royal  army  bills  being  repeatedly  rejected.  In 
1885  the  government  and  Riksdag  agreed  on  a  remission 
of  thirty  per  cent  of  the  military  taxes  of  landowners  in 
exchange  for  new  regulations  for  the  militia  compulsory 
service.  In  1887  the  Riksdag  sanctioned  the  total  abolition 
of  the  "indelta,"  or  cantoned  troops,  as  far  as  the  navy  was 
concerned,  which  was  the  first  step  toward  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  navy,  and  the  same  year  the  militia  law  of  1885 
went  into  effect. 

The  old  Landtmanna,  or  agrarian  party,  in  1888  gave 
place  to  a  new  protectionistic  party.  A  contested  election 
of  twenty-two  members  from  Stockholm  gave  a  sudden 
majority  to  the  protectionists,  O.  R.  Themptander,  the  able 
minister  of  state,  resigning.  The  army  bill  did  not  fare 
well  at  first.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Landtmanna 
party  was  brushed  aside,  the  old  enemies  of  an  army  re- 
form, the  landowners,  nobles  and  peasants  alike,  still  being 
strong  enough  to  successfully  oppose  it.  The  Riksdag  of 
1888  passed  a  grain  tariff,  which  went  into  effect  February 
14th  of  the  same  year,  enforcing  several  other  points  of  a 
protective  tariff  system. 

King  Oscar  called  an  extraordinary,  or  special,  session 
of  the  Riksdag,  October  18,  1892,  when  royal  propositions 
were  offered  and  accepted.     The  land-tax  was  abolished  and 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  417 

a  new  army  bill  passed.  According  to  the  stipulations  of 
the  latter,  the  bevceringsttd,  or  period  of  liability  for  every 
citizen  to  bear  arms,  was  extended  to  embrace  twenty  years 
instead  of  twelve,  viz.,  eight  years  in  the  first  ban  of  the 
landtvcerriy  or  militia,  four  years  in  the  second  ban,  and 
eight  years  in  the  landstorm,  or  final  levy.  The  first  ban  of 
militia  is  in  time  of  war  to  form  an  integral  part  of  the 
first  fighting  line,  the  second  ban  forming  a  reserve  for 
the  first  fighting  line.  The  final  levy  is  to  be  called  out 
for  garrison  duty  exclusively,  and  for  the  defence  of  the 
country  against  foreign  invasion.  Six  military  districts 
have  been  established,  five  distributed  along  the  entire  coast 
of  Sweden,  the  sixth  inland  in  the  western  provinces  to  be 
a  reserve  ready  to  be  used  at  the  point  and  moment  most 
needed.  The  reorganized  army  in  active  service  is  com- 
posed of  vcerfvade,  or  enlisted  troops,  and  indelta^  or  can- 
toned troops,  the  expenses  also  of  the  latter  being  paid  by 
the  government.  The  royal  guards,  chasseurs,  hussars, 
artillery,  and  engineers  are  enlisted  for  two  years  up  to 
eight.  The  militia  troops  are  distributed  among  both  the 
enlisted  and  the  cantoned  troops,  the  length  of  service  with 
the  colors  being  ninety  days  in  time  of  peace.  The  infantry 
in  which  all  the  cantoned  troops  serve  consist  of  twenty -six 
regiments  and  two  battalions.  The  line  is  armed  with 
Remingtons  of  8.8  millimetres  calibre.  There  are  eight 
regiments  of  cavalry  and  six  regiments  and  six  batteries 
of  field  artillery,  forty  batteries  in  all,  with  240  cannon. 
The  effective  of  the  active  army,  in  1896,  was  1,953  officers, 
571  employees,  1,779  non-commissioned  officers,  1,641  musi- 
cians and  38,802  men,  with  6,852  horses.  The  war  effective 
is  272,994  men,  besides  180,000  in  the  landstorm.  The 
chief  fortifications  of  Sweden  are  Carlscrona,  on  the  south 


418  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

coast;  two  fortresses  outside  of  Stockholm,  viz.,  Vaxholm 
and  Oscar  Fredericsborg ;  and,  in  the  interior,  Carlsborg, 
near  Lake  Vetter.  The  navy  comprises  4  turret  ships,  with 
10  inch  armor,  armed  each  with  2  10-inch  and  4  5.9-inch 
guns,  and  having  a  total  displacement  of  12,450  tons;  4 
armor  clad  monitors,  9  armored  gunboats,  3  corvettes, 
9  first-class  and  5  second-class  gunboats,  2  torpedo  cruis- 
ers, 7  first-class  and  9  second-class  torpedo  boats,  5  torpedo 
launches,  and  12  school  ships.  The  navy  is  manned  by  267 
oflBcers  and  about  4,500  sailors,  not  including  conscripts 
to  the  number  of  8,500  men.  The  entire  cost  of  the  de- 
fence of  Sweden  exceeds  ten  million  dollars  a  year. 

The  movement  for  a  reorganization  of  the  defences  has 
not  been  caused  by  any  change  in  the  policy  of  peace,  which 
has  faithfully  been  carried  out  by  all  the  rulers  of  the 
Bernadotte  dynasty.  The  ruler  of  Sweden  and  her  people 
desire  peace,  but  not  as  a  gift  of  mercy  from  the  great 
powers,  but  as  a  self-chosen  right  which  can  be  effectively 
defended  if  necessary.  The  ever-increasing  armament  of 
the  European  powers  has  made  a  strengthening  of  the 
Swedish  arms  unavoidable,  but  the  Swedish  government 
was  the  first  to  announce  its  readiness  to  accept  the  invita- 
tion of  Czar  Nicholas  II.  of  Russia  to  a  conference  for  the 
discussion  of  a  general  reduction  of  the  regular  armies. 
Germany  was  made  the  pattern  for  the  reorganization  of 
the  army  and  navy,  the  Swedish  government  having  fol- 
lowed the  German  also  in  the  treatment  of  the  labor  ques- 
tion, with  schemes  of  accident  and  old-age  insurance,  ac- 
cepted by  the  Riksdag. 

King  Oscar,  at  his  succession  to  the  throne,  gave  evi- 
dence of  his  desire  to  meet  the  reasonable  demands  of  hif 
Norwegian  subjects.     He  sanctioned,  in  1873,  the  abolition 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  419 

of  the  oflSce  of  a  governor-general  of  Norway,  the  govern- 
ment at  Christiania  to  be  presided  over  by  a  Norwegian 
minister  of  state.  To  the  later  Norwegian  demands  for 
a  separate  flag,  consular  service  and  ministry  of  foreign 
affairs.  King  Oscar  has  been  unyielding.  The  flag  question 
is  of  subordinate  importance.  King  Oscar,  in  1899,  has 
refused  to  sanction  the  resolution  of  the  Storthing,  three 
times  passed,  for  a  flag  without  the  mark  of  Union,  for  the 
reason  that  the  flag  with  that  mark  was  offered  to  Norway 
by  his  father,  Oscar  I.,  and  gratefully  accepted  when  the 
country  had  no  colors  at  all,  except  the  Swedish.  The 
Swedish  people  will  carry  their  old  flag  with  the  mark  of 
Union,  irrespective  of  any  changes  made  in  the  Norwegian 
colors.  More  serious  are  the  questions  of  consular  and 
diplomatic  service.  In  1893,  the  Swedish  government  of- 
fered to  compromise  by  establishing  a  common  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs  whose  head  might  be  indifferently  a  Swede 
or  a  Norwegian.  This  was  rejected  by  the  Norwegian 
Storthing.  The  same  offer  was  made  in  1837,  when  the 
dispute  first  arose,  provided  that  the  Norwegian  troops 
should  share  the  duty  of  the  common  defence  of  both  king- 
doms. The  Swedish  Riksdag  of  1893  passed  a  resolution, 
in  compliance  with  which  King  Oscar  for  a  second  time 
refused  to  sanction  the  bill  of  Norwegian  consulates. 

The  diametrically  opposite  views  which  are  held  in  re- 
gard to  the  relations  of  Sweden  and  Norway  are,  to  a  great 
extent,  caused  by  a  misconception  of  the  nature  of  the 
Union.  In  lack  of  a  Union  parliament,  it  has  by  many 
been  considered  to  be  only  a  personal  union  of  two  countries 
under  the  same  king.  Such  is  not  the  case.  It  is  true  that 
the  two  countries  are  both  free  and  independent  states  and 
that  the  king  is  the  only  visible  bond  between  them,  accord- 


420  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

ing  to  the  Act  of  Union,  but  the  Union  is  nevertheless  an 
actual  and  not  a  personal  one.  If  it  was  only  personal,  the 
king  could  at  will,  or  when  forced  to  do  so,  resign  his  power 
in  one  of  the  countries  and  continue  his  reign  in  the  other. 
The  Act  of  Union  cannot  be  changed  except  upon  a  resolu- 
tion, enacted  in  both  of  the  respective  diets,  and  with  the 
sanction  of  the  king  in  behalf  of  the  Union.  A  change  can 
be  made  at  the  same  Swedish  Riksdag  at  which  it  is  pro- 
posed, at  the  Norwegian  Storthing  not  until  the  next  regular 
session.  As  a  consequence  the  Union  cannot  be  dissolved 
by  the  representatives  of  either  country  alone,  and  the  king 
cannot  dissolve  it  by  exercising  any  power  of  his  own.  The 
king  cannot  abdicate  one  throne  without  abdicating  the 
other,  for  the  first  paragraph  of  the  Act  of  Union  stipulates 
that  the  two  countries  shall  be  indissolubly  and  irrevocably 
united  under  the  rule  of  the  same  king.  No  abdication  can 
be  granted,  except  by  common  consent  of  the  two  diets  in 
joint  session.  When  the  two  thrones  are  empty,  without 
an  heir-apparent,  a  new  king  shall  be  elected  by  the  two 
diets  in  common.  "What  underlies  the  Norwegian  claims 
of  a  separate  foreign  ministry  is,  besides  to  own  an  out- 
ward sign  of  the  country's  independence,  a  desire  for  a 
closer  constitutional  control  of  diplomatic  affairs.  From 
the  Swedish  side  the  desirability  of  a  Union  parliament  and 
a  greater  authority  for  the  Union  government  has  been 
expressed.  The  Swedes  have  been  found  unwilling  to  grant 
any  change  of  the  constitution  of  the  Union,  except  the 
right  be  added  for  the  Union  government  to  dispose  of  the 
military  forces  of  both  countries,  in  equal  proportion,  for 
the  common  defence.  King  Oscar's  standpoint  in  the 
Unionist  conflict  has  contributed  much  to  increase  his  pop- 
ularity in  Sweden,  where  his  firm  refusal  to  sanction  any 


HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN  421 

measure  which  would  cause  a  weakening  to  the  Union  has 
been  received  with  the  highest  approval. 

A  committee  to  review  the  relations  of  the  Union  and 
propose  a  revision  of  its  charter  was  appointed  in  1897,  but 
failed  to  accomplish  anything,  the  views  of  the  Swedish  and 
Norwegian  members  differing  too  radically  in  their  opin- 
ions. It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  ultimate  solution  of  the 
unionist  conflict,  whensoever  it  come  or  whatsoever  it  be, 
will  bring  the  two  countries  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula 
closer  together,  without  any  great  sacrifice  on  either  side, 
least  of  all  of  their  independence. 

During  the  more  than  eighty  years  of  peace  which  Swe- 
den has  enjoyed  under  the  rule  of  the  Bernadotte  dynasty, 
she  has  developed  her  constitutional  liberty  and  her  ma- 
terial prosperity  in  a  high  degree.  The  dreams  of  glory  by 
conquest  belong  to  days  gone  by,  but  in  the  fields  of  peace- 
able industries  she  has  attained  a  greatness  which  the  world 
begins  to  realize.  At  the  expositions  of  Paris  in  1867,  1878 
and  1889,  of  Vienna  in  1873,  of  Philadelphia  in  1876  and  of 
Chicago  in  1893,  Swedish  industry  and  art  have  taken  part 
with  honor  in  the  international  competition.  The  railways 
of  Sweden  have  incessantly  spun  a  more  and  more  extended 
network  of  steel  over  the  country,  opening  connections  for 
enterprises  in  new  districts  and  furthering  commerce  and 
industrial  art  in  a  wide  measure.  Oscar  II.  is  an  enthusi- 
astic friend  of  railway  improvements,  the  state  having  built 
and  acquired  a  quite  considerable  length  of  road  at  his  ini- 
tiative. The  length  of  Swedish  railways,  in  1896,  was  6,145 
miles,  of  which  2,283  miles  belonged  to  the  state,  compared 
to  a  total  of  1,089  miles  of  Norwegian  railways. 

The  post-office,  which  was  made  a  government  depart- 
ment by  Axel  Oxenstierna,  in  1636,  annually  transmits  130 


422  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

million  letters  and  parcels.  The  telegraph  lines  have  not 
reached  a  very  high  state  of  development;  still  there  are 
14,600  miles  of  telegraph.  The  telephone  has  made  much 
more  progress,  far  surpassing  that  of  any  other  country 
in  Europe.  The  total  length  of  the  connections  exceeds 
40,000  miles,  and  the  number  of  apparatus  is  more  than 
25,000.  Stockholm  makes  the  widest  use  of  the  tele- 
phone of  any  city  in  the  world,  with  her  300,000  inhabi- 
tants having  a  telephone  for  every  thirty.  Sweden  has 
developed  into  a  commercial  country  of  no  inconsiderable 
rank,  notwithstanding  her  isolated  position.  Exports  and 
imports  each  exceed  yearly  in  value  $100,000,000,  the  im- 
ports being  344,290,000  kroner  and  the  exports  311,434,000 
kronor  in  value,  in  1895,  a  Swedish  krona  being  about 
twenty-eight  cents.  The  commercial  value  of  the  foreign 
trade  amounts  to  thirty-nine  dollars  in  yearly  average  for 
each  inhabitant  of  Sweden,  which  is  about  as  much  as  in 
France.  The  imports  chiefly  consist  of  coal,  coffee,  salt, 
cotton  and  wool,  while  the  exports  are  timber  products, 
about  forty  per  cent  of  the  whole,  iron  and  steel,  the  best 
in  the  world,  machinery,  butter,  cattle,  matches,  etc.  The 
inland  navigation  and  commerce  are  very  lively.  The  state 
finances  are  in  a  prosperous  condition.  The  budget  of 
1898  showed  total  receipts  of  120,086,000  kronor,  of  which 
14,229,000  was  surplus  from  proceeding  budgets. 

Thanks  to  the  well  equipped  and  regulated  system  of 
instruction,  the  general  education  has  been  so  highly  ad- 
vanced that  Sweden,  in  this  respect,  holds  the  very  front 
rank  among  the  nations.  Besides  the  national  universities 
of  Upsala  and  Lund  and  the  state  medical  college  of  Stock- 
holm, city  universities  at  Stockholm  and  Gothenburg  have 
been  recently  founded  which  are  quickly  developing.     All 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  423 

study  at  the  universities  consists  of  post-graduate  work, 
there  being  about  thirty  colleges  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  which  lead  their  pupils  as  far  as  the  demands 
requisite  for  entering  the  universities.  The  Swedish  uni- 
versity courses  are  of  unexcelled  thoroughness  and  com- 
pleteness. The  so-called  Peasant  High  Schools  are  peculiar 
to  Scandinavia,  having  originated  in  Denmark.  There  are 
twenty -five  such  high  schools  in  Sweden,  which  give  to 
young  men  and  women  of  the  peasant  class  a  higher  educa- 
tion than  is  available  in  the  common  schools,  of  which  latter 
there  are  10,702,  with  692,360  pupils  and  13,797  teachers. 

Scientific  research  progresses  with  energy  and  success, 
and  Sweden  possesses  to-day  a  great  number  of  eminent 
scholars,  even  if  the  epoch  of  men  of  universal  genius  ap- 
pears to  be  a  thing  of  the  past  there  as  elsewhere.  Swedish 
scientists  have  opened  closer  relations  with  their  co-workers 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  energy  of  King  Oscar  has 
brought  about  several  congresses  of  science  at  Stockholm. 
In  the  natural  sciences,  Sweden  still  holds  an  honored  place, 
in  physics  offering  two  great  names,  Eric  Edlund  and  A.  Jo 
Angstroem,  the  latter  celebrated  for  his  work  on  the  solar 
spectrum,  which  forms  the  basis  foe  the  spectral  analysis. 
Death  has  claimed  these  men  and  also  J.  A.  H.  Gyld^n, 
an  eminent  astronomer;  J.  G.  Agardh,  C.  W.  Blomstrand, 
H.  O.  Nathorst,  J.  E.  Rydquist,  able  botanist,  chemist, 
agriculturist,  and  philologist,  respectively;  Pontus  "Wikner, 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  disciples  of  the  philosopher 
Bostroem,  and  Victor  Rydberg,  the  philosophical  poet, 
novelist  and  polyhistor. 

Among  the  most  noteworthy  of  living  Swedish  scholars 
are  Adolph  Nor^n,  Axel  Koch  and  Esaias  Tegn^r,  Junior, 
philologists;  Hans  Hildebrand  and  Oscar  Montelius,  archsB- 


424  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

ologists;  P.  Fahlbeck,  Nils  and  Magnus  Hoejer,  Martin 
Weibull,  Ernest  Carlson,  historians;  A.  M.  Mittag-Leffler, 
mathematician;  Hugo  Hildebrandsson,  meteorologist;  E.  A. 
H.  Key,  E.  O.  T.  Westerlund,  Anton  Wetterstrand,  P.  J. 
Biornstroem,  T.  F.  Hartelius,  Curt  Wallis,  prominent  in 
various  branches  of  medical  science. 

King  Oscar  with  fervent  interest  and  unfailing  liberality 
has  encouraged  various  scientific  explorations,  and  has  had 
the  satisfaction  to  see  the  greatest  geographical  discoveries 
of  the  century  successfully  made  by  Swedes,  the  circum- 
navigation of  Asia  and  Europe,  and  the  discovery  of  the 
Northeast  Passage  by  Baron  N.  A.  E.  Nordenskiold,  and 
the  exploration  of  Central  Asia  by  Sven  Hedin,  which  has 
forever  settled  the  learned  disputes  of  ages.  A  third  expe- 
dition, the  most  daring  of  scientific  exploits  ever  attempted, 
still  keeps  the  world  in  suspense  as  to  its  final  outcome. 
July  11,  1897,  S.  A.  Andr^e,  a  scientifically  experienced 
aeronaut,  with  two  companions,  Nils  Strindberg  and  Knut 
FrsBukel,  started  in  a  balloon  constructed  for  the  purpose, 
and  with  provisions  for  three  years,  from  an  island  of 
Spitzbergen,  with  the  purpose  of  reaching  the  North  Pole. 
The  daring  aeronauts  have  not  been  heard  from  since  their 
departure,  but  authorities  like  Baron  Nordenskiold  have 
expressed  the  best  of  hopes  that  they  may  have  reached 
Franz  Joseph's  Land  in  safety,  whence  they  might  regain 
settled  regions.'  S.  A.  Andr^e  belongs  to  a  class  of  men, 
the  Swedish  engineers,  who  have  won  distinction  for  their 
ability,  and  on  whom  the  examples  set  by  Christopher 
Polhem  and  John  Ericsson  have  had  a  stimulating  influ- 

^  A.  C.  Nathorst,  an  able  scientist  and  explorer,  started  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1899  with  an  expedition  to  Greenland  in  search  of  Andree  and 
his  companions. 


HISTORY   OF   SWEDEN  425 

ence.  There  are  among  them  two  inventors  of  the  very 
first  rank,  who  belong  to  the  reign  of  Oscar  II.,  Alfred 
Nobel  (d.  1896),  the  inventor  of  dynamite,  and  Gustavus 
de  Laval,  the  Swedish  Edison.  The  latter  is  world-famous 
for  his  separator  and  other  inventions,  which  have  revolu- 
tionized the  dairy  industry.  Alfred  Nobel,  the  disciple  of 
John  Ericsson,  has  not  only  the  glory  of  having  invented 
one  of  the  most  useful  helpers  of  mechanic  and  industrial 
progress,  but  also  that  of  having  set  aside  his  vast  fortune^ 
amounting  to  something  like  $12,500,000,  for  public  pur- 
poses. The  money  is  so  invested  as  to  constitute  a  fund 
the  interest  of  which  shall  be  applied  to  five  equal  annual 
prizes,  to  be  awarded  for  the  most  important  discovery  or 
improvement  in  chemistry,  physics  or  medicine,  for  the 
work  in  literature  highest  in  the  ideal  sense,  and  to  the  one 
who  shall  have  acted  most  and  best  for  the  fraternity  of 
nations,  the  suppression  or  reduction  of  standing  armies, 
and  the  constitution  and  propagation  of  peace  congresses. 
The  first  prize,  physics  and  chemistry,  shall  be  awarded  by 
the  Academy  of  Science  of  Sweden ;  that  for  physiology  and 
medicine  by  the  Carolin  Institute  of  Stockholm ;  the  literary 
prize  by  the  Swedish  Academy ;  and  that  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  peace  by  a  commission  of  five  members  elected  by 
the  Norwegian  Storthing.  He  especially  directed  that  in  dis- 
tributing these  prizes  no  consideration  of  nationality  shall 
prevail,  so  that  he  who  is  most  worthy  of  it  shall  receive 
the  reward,  whether  he  be  Scandinavian  or  not.  It  seems 
that  the  sum  of  each  of  the  five  annual  prizes  thus  instituted 
will  amount  to  $75,000.  The  inventor  of  dynamite  was 
deeply  interested  in  all  that  was  done  to  promote  peace  by 
congresses  and  societies.  He  always  considered  that  by  im- 
proving war  material,  and  thus  increasing  the  dangers  of 


426  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

war,  he  was  contributing  his  share  toward  the  pacification 
of  the  world.  Alfred  Nobel  has,  by  the  manner  in  which 
the  Norwegian  Storthing  is  made  an  active  party  in  the  dis- 
position of  his  will,  indicated  his  view  upon  the  Union  of 
Sweden  and  Norway  and  his  hopes  for  a  peaceful  solution 
of  their  conflicts. 

Swedish  literature,  after  the  period  of  dilettantism  and 
epigones,  has,  during  the  reign  of  Oscar  II.,  twice  been 
rejuvenated  and  continues  its  development  on  broadened 
paths  and  with  a  wider  scope.  The  eighties  were  char- 
acterized by  a  strong  realistic  movement,  which  went  far 
in  daring  truth  of  description  and  brought  problems  of  a 
social,  religious  and  political  nature  under  discussion  in 
works  of  a  novelistic  or  dramatic  form.  In  naturalism, 
it  never  went  to  the  extremes  of  the  other  Scandinavian 
literature.  The  movement  was  to  a  great  extent  brought 
on  by  Norwegian  and  Danish  influence,  and  soon  subsided 
for  want  of  solid  and  fascinating  art  to  maintain  it.  The 
Swedish  champion  of  this  movement,  although  without  the 
restrictions  of  any  school,  was  August  Strindberg,  a  genius 
of  extraordinary  endowment.  Through  the  versatility  and 
power  of  his  talent,  he  created  new  forms  for  the  Swedish 
drama,  novel,  short  story  and  essay.  In  his  battle  against 
reactionary  conservatism  he  went  too  far;  an  excitable 
nature,  led  into  extremes,  but  he  has  had  the  manly  courage 
to  confess  and  regret  his  mistakes.  Strindberg,  who  is  an 
able  historian,  ethnographer,  naturalist  and  sinologue,  is  the 
most  versatile  and  prolific  of  contemporary  writers.  In  the 
wide  scope  of  his  genius  and  originality  of  his  methods, 
Strindberg  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  dramatists  that 
ever  lived.  His  autobiographical  works  are  of  supreme 
importance,  both  to  the  students  of  literature  and  psychol- 


HISTORY    OP   SWEDEN  427 

ogy.  Among  his  masterpieces  are  **  Master  Olof,"  the  great 
historic  drama  of  his  youth,  **  Swedish  Fates  and  Adven- 
tures," and  "Utopia  Realized,"  two  series  of  short  stories, 
and  "The  Father,"  a  modern  drama  of  unsurpassed  tragfic 
grandeur. 

Several  women  took  an  active  part  in  the  literary  discus- 
sion of  social  problems,  with  more  or  less  justice  considered 
as  the  champions  of  women's  rights.  Among  these  Anne 
Charlotte  Leffler,  duchessa  di  Cajanello,  in  spite  of  her 
premature  death,  developed  into  a  novelist  of  merit  who 
will  be  placed  side  by  side  with  Bremer,  Knorring  and 
Carl^n. 

The  golden  lyres  of  Romanticism  were  silenced  and  the 
epigones  were  hushed  by  the  sarcasms  of  Realism.  Count 
Snoilsky  and  Victor  Rydberg  were  the  only  poets  of  the 
earlier  period  who  sang  with  inspiration  and  were  listened 
to.  After  the  realistic  movement  of  the  eighties  came  a 
romantic  reaction  with  new  lyrics  and  new  novelists,  who 
avoided  the  ruthlessness  of  the  realists,  but  had  profited  by 
their  merits.  This  new  movement  cannot  be  called  a  school, 
for  it  is  marked  by  its  great  versatility  of  subjects  and  great 
elasticity  of  treatment.  If  the  definition  of  realistic  art 
be  "a  piece  of  nature  seen  through  a  temperament,"  that 
of  the  new  movement  may  be  "an  artistic  temperament 
attuned  to  pieces  of  nature,"  a  sensitive  and  supple  talent 
which  has  an  almost  unlimited  capacity  to  tell  every  story 
just  in  the  vein  its  particular  subject  demands.  Pre-eminent 
in  this  movement  stand  Ola  Hansson,  Selma  Lagerloef, 
Verner  von  Heidenstam,  Gustaf  af  Geijerstam,  Peter  Hall- 
stroem,  Thor  Hedberg,  Oscar  Levertin,  all  fine  novelists, 
almost  all  good  poets,  and  Geijerstam,  an  able  dramatist. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  and  supremely  gifted   poets 


428  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Sweden  has  ever  had  is  Gustaf  Frceding,  who  generally 
excels,  sometimes  abuses,  his  remarkable  versatility  in  find- 
ing a  true  lyric  expression  for  the  very  widest  range  of  sub- 
jects. Sigurd  Hedenstierna  is  the  most  popular  humorist, 
witty  in  his  sketches,  but  impossible  as  a  novelist.  Th^ 
greatest  humorists  are  August  Strindberg  and  Gustaf 
Frceding.  Contemporary  Sweden  has  very  few  and  no 
great  literary  critics,  but  some  good  literary  historians 
in  Henric  Schueck,  Karl  Warburg  and  Oscar  Levertin. 
She  has  a  number  of  able  journalists,  most  distinguished 
among  whom  is  their  Nestor,  S.  A.  Hedlund,  of  Gothen- 
burg, a  fiery  but  dignified  champion  of  a  liberal  govern- 
ment, religious  tolerance,  social  evolution  and  cultural 
progress. 

Swedish  literature  has  a  long  pedigree  compared  to 
Swedish  art,  which  is  hardly  more  than  two  centuries  old. 
All  the  more  remarkable,  then,  is  its  rapid  growth  and  high 
degree  of  excellence.  The  first  school  of  Swedish  painters 
was  founded  by  the  German  Ehrenstrahl,  giving  to  Swedish 
art  the  cosmopolitan  character  it  has  preserved  to  this  day, 
influenced  by  continental  but  chiefly  French  art.  Swedish 
painters  early  attracted  attention  abroad.  Gustavus  Lund- 
berg,  with  a  picture  of  Boucher  and  his  wife,  won  the 
greatest  success  of  the  Salon  of  Paris,  in  1743.  Peter 
Adolphus  Hall,  **painter  to  the  king  and  the  children  of 
France,"  has  been  called  the  Van  Dyck  of  the  miniature 
painters.  He  resided  in  Paris  up  to  the  time  of  the  revolu- 
tion and  took  part  in  the  storming  of  the  Bastile.  Alex- 
ander Roslin  was,  from  the  year  1760,  installed  in  the 
Louvre  as  painter  to  the  king  and  councillor  of  the  French 
Academy.  In  1771  he  carried  home  a  prize  which  the  im- 
mortal Greuze  could  not  capture,  much  to  the  dismay  of 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  429 

Diderot,  and  died  as  the  most  famous  and  wealthy  artist 
of  the  period.  In  a  later  period,  Italy  attracted  many 
Swedish  artists,  and  later  stilly  in  the  sixties  of  the  present 
century,  the  influence  of  Germany,  especially  of  the  Dussel- 
dorf  school,  was  strongly  felt.  John  Frederic  Hoeckert 
won  the  first  prize  of  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1855  with  his 
large  picture  ^*  Divine  Service  in  the  Lapmark.''  When  the 
glories  of  Hoeckert  were  almost  forgotten  at  home,  Edward 
Wahlberg,  in  the  seventies,  was  ushered  into  celebrity  as 
one  of  the  greatest  landscape  painters  of  modern  times, 
equally  appreciated  in  Germany,  as  later  in  France,  and  new 
French  laurels  were  won  by  Hugo  Salmson,  William  von 
Gegerfelt  and  August  Hagborg.  Since  then  French  influ- 
ences have  become  solidly  established,  with  a  few  impor- 
tant artists  of  the  Munich  school,  like  C.  G.  Hellquist  and 
Julius  Kronberg.  The  climax  of  artistic  honors  was 
reached  by  Nils  Forsberg,  whose  picture,  **The  Death 
of  a  Hero,"  carried  home  the  first  prize  of  the  French 
Salon  in  1888  (not  an  exposition  medal),  a  distinction  which 
no  Swede  and  exceedingly  few  non  French  artists  ever  won. 
The  repeated  successes  which  Swedish  painters  have  won 
at  expositions  of  Europe  were  more  than  duplicated  by 
the  enthusiastic  approval  granted  it  at  the  World's  Fair 
in  Chicago  in  1893.  The  truth  is  that  Sweden  possesses 
a  number  of  eminent  painters  in  every  branch  of  painting, 
except  the  marine,  which  has  been  but  sparingly  represented 
since  the  days  of  Marcus  Larsson.  The  most  famous  among 
them  are,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  Richard  Bergh, 
Oscar  Biorck,  Eva  Bonnier,  Gustavus  Cederstrcem,  Prince 
Eugene,  Eugene  Jansson,  Ernest  Josephson,  Nils  Kreuger, 
Carl  Larsson,  Bruno  Liljefors,  Charles  Nordstroem,  Allan 
OEsterlind,  Georg  and   Hanna  Pauli,  George  von  Rosen, 


430  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

Robert  Thegerstrom,  and  A.  L.  Zorn.  It  has  been  said 
of  the  Swedish  painters,  by  way  of  complaint,  that  they 
are  not,  as  their  brethren  in  Denmark  and  Norway^  in  any 
marked  degree  national.  Swedish  art  has,  for  its  character- 
istic boldness  and  superiority  in  modern  technique,  loftiness 
of  purpose,  great  individuality  of  expression  and  depth  of 
feeling.  Be  these  characteristics  national  or  cosmopolitan, 
the  Swedish  painters  "are  certainly  a  great  credit  to  their 
country.  To  King  Oscar  it  must  be  in  a  high  degree  satis- 
factory to  see  the  artistic  tendencies  of  his  family  culminate 
In  the  works  of  his  youngest  son,  Prince  Eugene,  who, 
being  in  the  front  line  of  the  advance  corps  of  art,  paints, 
from  dreamy,  inner  life,  pictures  which  are  the  delight  of 
artists  and  true  connoisseurs. 

The  sculptors  are  less  numerous,  but  the  art  of  Sergei, 
Fogelberg  and  Molin  have  found  worthy  perpetuators  and 
innovators  in  Per  Hasselberg,  John  Boerjesson,  Frithiof 
Kjellbei^,  Alfred  Nystroem,  Christian  Ericsson,  Th.  Lund- 
berg  and  Ingel  Fallstedt.  To  the  art  of  metal  engraving 
on  coins  and  medals  Sweden  has  offered  some  works  of  the 
very  highest  value  by  J.  Eo  Ericson,  P.  H.  Lundgren,  Lea 
Ahlbom  and  Adolphus  Lindbergo 

Architecture  cannot  boast  of  any  continuous  chain  of 
brilliant  development.  Since  the  days  of  Nicodemus  Tes- 
Bin  there  have  been  few  great  architects  until  in  very  recent 
times,  when  architecture  has  received  a  sudden  impetus 
which  has  made  its  progress  and  results  as  remarkable,  or 
almost  more  so,  than  that  of  the  other  arts  To  Helgo 
Zettervall  a  number  of  elaborate  national  works  of  con- 
struction and  restoration  have  been  intrusted  and,  as  a 
rule,  carried  through  in  a  meritorious  manner,  although 
sometimes  giving  occasion  for  serious  criticism.      An  im» 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  43X 

portant  influence  was  exerted  by  Frederic  William  Scholan- 
der,  more  by  his  teaching  than  by  his  works.  It  is  prin- 
cipally his  pupils  who  in  the  last  few  decades  have  almost 
revolutionized  the  building  methods  and  architectural  aspect 
of  the  capital,  and  endowed  Gothenburg  and  other  towns 
with  works  of  architectural  distinction.  Pre-eminent  among 
modern  architects  are  I.  G.  Clason,  Gustavus  Wickman, 
K.  F.  von  Gegerfelt,  Adrian  Peterson,  Hans  Hedlund, 
Valfried  Karison,  A.  F.  Anderberg,  E.  Lallerstedt.  The 
Vasa,  or  Swedish  Castle  Renaissance,  which  with  good 
effect  has  been  reintroduced  for  monumental  buildings, 
seems  to  lead  architecture  on  to  a  wholesome  national 
development,  combining  impressive  outlines  and  solidity 
with  elaboration  and  grace  of  interior  decoration. 

The  foremost  composers  of  orchestral  music  have  been 
mentioned  above.  Sweden  maintains  her  reputation  as 
being  the  country  of  song  through  the  compositions  by 
Hedenblad,  Koerling,  Svedbom,  Sjoegren  and  Arlberg, 
while  Soederman  has  brought  the  form  of  the  ballad,  based 
on  national  folk  music,  to  the  highest  development.  The 
royal  opera  of  Stockholm  recently  moved  into  new  and 
elegant  quarters  erected  on  the  site  of  the  old  opera  house 
built  by  Gustavus  III.  It  possesses,  in  Caroline  CEstberg, 
Mathilde  Linden,  Arvid  CEdman,  C.  F.  Lundquist  and  J. 
Elmblad,  dramatic  singers  of  high  rank,  while  Sweden,  in 
Louise  Pyk,  Mathilde  Grabow  Taube  and  Solomon  Smith, 
owns  concert  singers  of  great  eminence.  The  international 
firmament  of  song  has  two  Swedish  stars  of  considerable 
magnitude  in  Sigrid  Arnoldsson-Fischhoff,  a  colorature 
songstress,  and  Ellen  Nordgren  Gullbrandson,  a  Wagner 
singer.  The  greatest  actor  is  Emil  Hi  11  berg,  a  noble 
creator  of   Ibsen  and  Strindberg   roles,  while  the  country 


432  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

recently  lost  its  ablest   comedian    in   the   death   of   Ennt 
Almloef. 

Sweden  of  to-day  offers  an  attractive  picture  of  a  coun- 
try in  a  high  degree  cultured  and  prosperous,  but  no  country 
or  period  is  entitled  to  reap  only  benefits  or  enjoy  undis- 
turbed happiness.  No  progress  is  obtained  without  struggle 
and  relapses,  and  a  good  must  give  way  for  something 
better.  Beneath  a  surface  generally  smiling  and  serene 
formidable  religious  and  social  forces  are  in  motion.  The 
Swedish  state  church  is  divided  into  two  camps,  which 
resemble  a  high  and  a  low  church,  out  of  which  the  whole 
may  come  forward  strengthened  and  rejunevated.  The 
various  sects  are  not  all  satisfied  with  the  degree  of  liberty 
they  enjoy.  A  shallow  materialistic  movement  of  anti-relig- 
ious tendencies,  which  styled  itself  Utilitarian,  caused  some 
sensation  in  the  latter  eighties  and  early  nineties,  more 
through  the  somewhat  too  severe  manner  in  which  it  was 
suppressed  than  through  any  of  its  own  merits.  There  are 
agitators  for  a  separation  of  state  and  church  who  are 
opposed  by  some  of  the  stanchest  friends  of  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy.  A  separation  of  educational  and  church 
affairs  seems  desirable.  The  yeomen  have  regained  the 
predominant  position  in  political  life  which  was  theirs  in 
the  time  of  the  ancient  Teutonic  communities,  using  their 
power  in  a  way  which  is  not  always  beneficial  to  the  other 
classes  or  the  state  at  large.  The  great  class  of  country 
population,  which  has  been  in  vain  striving  to  rise  to  the 
privileged  class  of  landowners,  if  even  on  the  smallesi 
scale,  have  emigrated  in  vast  numbers.  The  emigration, 
which  has  given  America  at  least  1,200,000  inhabitants  of 
Swedish  birth  or  parentage,  is  one  of  the  most  astounding 
phenomena  of  the  century.     It  has,  to  a  large  extent,  sub- 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  433 

sided,  but  may  be  revived  if  the  pressure  for  social  improve- 
ment is  found  of  no  avail.  The  workingmen  are  resolved 
to  gain  a  representation  and  are  striving  to  attain  the  intro- 
duction of  general  suliVage.  The  weapons  they  use  are 
principally  strikes,  but  may  also  turn  to  wholesale  emigra- 
tion. In  1893  the  advocates  of  universal  suflFrage  arranged 
for  the  election  of  a  convention  by  popular  vote,  the  first 
Folksriksdag,  which  addressed  an  appeal  to  the  legal  Riks- 
dag, to  consider  an  amendment  for  the  extension  of  the 
suffrage.  The  liberals  and  radicals  are  interested  in  this 
agitation,  and  brought  out  their  full  vote  to  the  Folksriks- 
dag. The  conservative  party  ignores  the  whole  movement, 
probably  not  wisely.  The  towns  are  seeking  an  extended 
representation  and  bitterly  oppose  the  curtailment  of  the 
rights  already  enjoyed,  fearing  the  reactionary  tendencies 
of  the  conservatives,  who  have  their  strength  in  the  large 
agrarian  population.  Anarchism  is  something  unknown 
in  Sweden.  The  socialistic  agitation,  which  is  spreading 
among  the  classes  without  a  political  representation,  is  car- 
ried on  without  any  great  bitterness  and  entirely  without 
lawless  means. 

Any  practical  or  theoretical  agitation  for  a  republic  there 
is  none  in  Sweden,  the  population  as  a  whole  not  finding 
salvation  from  the  defects  of  government  or  society  in  any 
outward  change  of  rule.  Civil  service  is  enforced  to  the 
letter,  and  the  social  pressure  from  above  downward  is  of  a 
nature  caused  by  financial  or  educational  supremacy  only 
and  would  remain  the  same  under  republican  rule.  The 
Swedes  are  proud  of  their  history  and  the  long  and  unbroken 
chain  of  their  political  and  social  development.  Their 
neighbors  accuse  them  of  having  traces  of  the  chauvinism 
of    bygone  days,   but  not    altogether  with    justice.      The 

XX  19 


434  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

national  anthem  of  Sweden  can  be  quoted  in  their  justifica- 
tion. It  speaks,  in  one  instance,  of  the  country  as  en- 
throned on  memories  of  a  glorious  past  when  its  nam© 
filled  the  world;  but  that  name  is  the  North,  to  whose 
grandeur  and  loveliness  of  nature  the  whole  song  is  a  pane- 
gyric. The  name  of  Sweden  is  not  even  mentioned,  a  fact 
which  does  not  point  to  a  narrow  or  antiquated  form  of 
patriotism.  There  is  in  the  nature  of  the  Swedes  a  ten- 
dency to  delight  in  the  display  of  dignified  luxury,  which 
was  known  to  Tacitus,  The  Swedes  love  to  see  the  crown 
of  one  of  the  oldest  states  of  Europe  carried  with  dig- 
nity as  an  emblem  of  their  ancient  independence.  The 
Swedish  king  has  in  reality  less  power  than  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  but  the  Swedes  have  an  inherited 
faculty  of  confidence  and  loyalty  of  which  their  king  re- 
ceives his  full  share.  The  Swedes  become  excellent  citizens 
of  a  republic  for  that  very  reason :  reverence  for,  and  loy- 
alty to,  the  institutions  and  historial  development  of  the 
country  in  which  they  dwell.  Among  the  Scandinavian 
nationalities,  the  Swede  has  been  characterized  as  the  noble- 
man or  aristocrat,  on  account  of  his  love  of  luxury  and  the 
joys  of  life,  his  dignity,  diplomatic  talent  and  lyrico-rhetoric 
temperament.  It  is  true  that  his  dignity  seldom  forsakes 
the  Swede ;  when  it  does,  something  of  the  soldier  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  comes  to  the  surface.  To  her  diplomatic 
talent,  more  than  to  her  glorious  victories,  Sweden  owes 
her  superiority  in  size,  prosperity  and  political  importance, 
as  compared  to  her  Scandinavian  neighbors. 

The  fundamental  laws  of  the  kingdom  of  Sweden  are: 
1.  The  constitution  of  June  6,  1809;  2.  The  amended  reg- 
ulations for  the  formation  of  the  Riksdag  of  June  22,  1866; 
3.  The  law  of  royal  succession  of  September  26,  1810;  and 


HISTORY   OP  SWEDEN  435 

on  the  liberty  of  the  press  of  July  16,  1813.  According  to 
these  statutes,  the  king  must  be  a  member  of  the  Lutheran 
church,  and  have  sworn  fealty  to  the  laws  of  the  land.  His 
person  is  inviolable.  He  has  the  right  to  declare  war  and 
make  peace  after  consulting  the  state  council.  He  nomi« 
nates  to  all  higher  appointments,  both  military  and  civil; 
concludes  foreign  treaties,  and  has  a  right  to  preside  in  the 
supreme  court  of  justice.  The  princes  of  the  blood  royal 
are  excluded  from  all  civil  employments.  The  king  pos- 
sesses legislative  power  in  matters  of  political  administra* 
tion,  but  in  all  other  respects  that  power  is  exercised  by  the 
Riksdag,  in  concert  with  the  sovereign,  and  every  new  law 
must  have  the  assent  of  the  crown.  The  right  of  imposing 
taxes  is  vested  in  the  Riksdag.  The  executive  power  is  ia 
the  hands  of  the  king,  who  acts  under  the  advice  of  a  cab° 
inet  or  state  council,  the  head  of  which  is  the  minister  of 
state.  It  consists  of  ten  members,  seven  of  whom  are  min« 
isterial  heads  of  departments  and  three  without  departments. 
All  the  members  of  the  cabinet  are  responsible  for  the  acts 
of  the  government. 

Eric  Gustavus  Bostroem  is  minister  of  state,  holding 
office  since  1891,  after  the  protectionists  had  got  into  power 
and  the  compromise  cabinets  which  followed  were  a  thing 
of  the  past.  The  other  ministers  without  departments. 
Baron  A.  L.  E.  Akerhielm  and  S.  H.  Wikblad,  have  re- 
mained in  office  since  the  days  of  compromise  cabinets.  The 
other  members  who  have  been  in  office  from  five  to  eight 
years  are  as  follows:  Count  L.  V.  A.  Douglas,  minister 
of  foreign  affairs;  P.  S.  L.  Annerstedt,  minister  of  justice; 
Baron  A.  E.  Rappe,  minister  of  war;  J.  C  E.  Christerson, 
minister  of  marine;  J.  E.  von  Krusenstierna,  minister  of 
interior;    Count   H.    Hansson  Wachtmeister,   minister   of 


43()  HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN 

finance;   G.  F.   Gilljam,  minister  of  education  and  eccle- 
siastical affairs. 

King  Oscar  II.,  in  the  jubilee  year  of  1897,  which 
marked  the  completion  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  of  his 
reign,  received  innumerable  proofs  of  the  love  of  the  two 
nations  under  his  rule  and  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  he 
is  held  by  the  governments  and  citizens  of  foreign  countries. 
The  occasion  was  celebrated  by  a  large  and  highly  success- 
ful Scandinavian  exposition  at  Stockholm  in  the  summer, 
Russia,  with  Finland,  also  taking  part,  and  by  a  series  of 
festivities  about  September  21st,  the  date  of  his  succession 
to  the  throne.  King  Oscar  has  always  given  sympathetic 
attention  to  the  United  States,  especially  to  their  citizens 
of  Swedish  birth.  Several  deputations  from  America  called 
upon  the  king  in  the  jubilee  year.  Among  these  was  a 
male  chorus  of  fifty-four  members,  belonging  to  the  Amer- 
ican Union  of  Swedish  singers.  The  singers  were  invited 
to  the  royal  castle  and  received  and  feasted  by  the  aged 
monarch  with  cordial  simplicity,  in  all  royal  splendor,  with- 
out any  of  its  pomp  or  ceremony.  To  the  hearty  songs  of 
his  unpretentious  guests,  King  Oscar  responded  with  one 
of  the  eloquent  speeches  for  which  he  is  so  justly  famous, 
assuring  them  that,  although  citizens  of  another  land,  they 
were  still  followed  by  the  loving  interest  of  their  mother 
country  and  her  monarch.  When  the  singers  intoned  one 
of  the  songs  by  Prince  Gustavus,  the  king  joined  them  with 
his  sonorous  tenor  voice,  smilingly  calling  their  attention 
to  the  fact  that  he  had  not  forgotten  his  students'  songs. 
The  anniversary  of  the  seventieth  birthday  of  Oscar  II.  was 
celebrated  January  21,  1899,  a  slight  gloom  being  cast  over 
it  on  account  of  the  temporary  illness  of  the  king.  Oscar 
II.  fully  recovered  after  a  few  months  of  rest  and  recreation 


HISTORY    OF   SWEDEN  437 

and  bears  every  indication  of  attaining  the  same  advanced 
age,  with  the  same  unimpaired  activity,  as  his  grandfather, 
which  would  mean  another  decade  added  to  the  era  of  un- 
disturbed peace.  Crown  Prince  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who 
is  yet  little  known  in  Norway,  enjoys  great  popularity  in 
Sweden,  where  his  harmonious,  sagacious  nature  and  reso- 
lute energy  are  highly  respected. 

The  reign  of  Oscar  II.  in  Sweden  has  been  marked  by 
reactionary  movements  in  Church  and  State,  but  the  king 
has  been  in  such  close  contact  with  his  people  that  they 
have  recognized  in  him  a  sovereign  who  stands  above  the 
parties.  The  king  has  used  the  conservative  elements  of  his 
country  to  strengthen  her  defences  and  to  maintain  the 
Union  with  Norway,  which  have  been  the  great  goals  of 
his  policy  of  peace.  To  sum  up  King  Oscar's  standpoint 
in  the  Norwegian  question,  he  is  willing  to  grant  Norway 
home  rule  in  its  fullest  extent,  but  refuses  to  grant  her 
separate  control  of  foreign  affairs,  which  he  considers  incom- 
patible with  the  idea  of  the  Union.  In  this  standpoint 
King  Oscar  is  backed  by  the  convictions  of  the  overwhelm- 
ing majority  of  Swedes,  who  see  in  the  dissolution  of  the 
Union  a  danger  to  Sweden,  Norway,  or  both  countries,  of 
sharing  the  fate  of  unhappy  Finland,  which  the  civilized 
world  is  now  deeply  deploring.  The  danger  which  menaces 
the  sons  of  Suomi  has  touched  all  Scandinavians  to  the 
quick,  and  it  would  seem  that  the  new  century  shall  wit- 
ness a  restoration  of  the  Scandinavian  policy.  If  the  move- 
ment to  bring  this  about  meets  with  success,  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that,  from  the  start,  it  shall  have  rather  the  actual 
wants  than  the  ideal  rights  of  the  independent  Scandinavian 
states  in  view.  From  the  point  of  view  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States  we  cannot  but  sympathize  with  a  movement 


438  HISTORY    OF    SWEDEN 

which  may  establish  a  union  of  independent  states  into  a 
realm  of  imperial  government,  less  an  emperor.  Let  there 
rather  be  two  or  three  kings  in  the  North,  with  one  solid 
union  government  and  a  common  and  equal  defence  in  case 
of  war,  than  two  or  three  foreign  ministers  with  as  many 
different  policies  and  a  divided  and  unequal  defence. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abelin,  G.  R.,  408^10. 

Abo,  89,  122,  171,  V2, 186,  232,  313, 

370;   peace  treaty  (in  1743),  316, 

317.      University    of    Abo    (see 

Universities). 
Absolutism,  Absolute  Monarchy, 

255-258,  260,  268,  293,  298,  300- 

301,  302,  308,  309,  310,  314,  344, 

349,  350,  357. 
Academic  style,  339. 
Academy,  of  Antiquities,  235;  of 

Art,  346;  of  Science,  336-337, 340, 

346;  Swedish,  346,  355;  French, 

428;  Military,  355. 
Adalvard,  68;  the  Younger,  68. 
Adam  of  Bremen,  63. 
Adlerbeth,  G.  G.,  345,  350. 
Adlercreutz,    C.  J.,  358,  360-361, 

362,367;  A.  G.,409. 
Adlersparre,  George,  362. 
Admiral,  189;  State,  250. 
Adolphus  Frederic  of  Sweden,  808, 

316,  317-320,  339. 
Adolphus  John,  Duke,  249. 
Adrianople,  297-298. 
Africa,  232. 
Aftonbladet,  377,  403. 
Agardh,  J.  G.,  423. 
Agne,  36. 
Agnefit,  36. 

Agriculture.     See  Sweden. 
Ahlborn,  Lea,  430. 
Ahlstroemer,  John,  317,  821,  834- 

337. 
Akerhielm,  A.  L.  N.,  435. 
Akkershus,  district   of,   248,   307; 

fortress  of,  307. 
Aland  archipelago,  171,  388;   peace 

deliberations  at,  306. 


Albrecht  the  Elder,  duke  of  Meck- 
lenburg, 95;  the  Younger,  king 
of  Sweden,  95,  96-97,  100,  102, 
103. 

Alemannians,  29. 

Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  357-358, 
370. 

Alexandra,  princess  of  Russia,  355- 
356. 

Alexandria,  27. 

Alf,  36. 

Alfred  the  Great,  43. 

Alingsos,  217,  334-337. 

Alliance,  187,  189,  202,  206,  225, 
259,  273,  283,  296,  315,  319,  344, 
352,  357,  370,  388,  404;  Triple, 
252. 

Alliterative  prose,  66;  verse,  61, 66. 

Almloef,  N.  V.,  390;  Knut,  432. 

Almquist,  C.  J.  L.,  388-389. 

Alnsnoe,  meeting  at,  86. 

Alof,  38. 

Alps,  21. 

Alrek,  36. 

Alt  mark,  armistice  of,  203. 

Altona,  295. 

Alt-Ranstaedt,  279-281;  peace 
treaty  signed  at,  281,  290. 

Alvastra,  74,  77. 

Ambassadors,  254,  269,  372,  305, 
358,  368. 

Amber,  17,  24. 

America,  232,  324,  332,  351, 432, 436; 
South  America,  378. 

American  Union  of  Swedish  Sing- 
ers, 436. 

Amsterdam,  323,  326. 

Anastasius,  28. 

Anatomy,  262,  825;  hall  of,  263- 
263. 

Anckarstroem,  J.  J.,  352. 

(439) 


440 


INDEX 


Anckarsverd,  C.  H.,  883,  3T7,  379. 
Anderberg,  A.  F.,  431. 
AndreaB,  Laurentius,  141,  150. 
Andree,  S.  A.,  424. 
Ane,  or  Aune,  King,  37. 
Angermanland,  5. 
Angermannus,  Abraham,  183,  184. 
Anglii,  47. 
Anglo-Saxon,  58,  62.    See  also  Old 

English. 
Angstroem,  A.  J.,  423. 
Anjala  Conspiracy,  348-349,  369. 
Anne  of  England,  280. 
Annerstedt,  P.  S.  L.,  435. 
Ansgar,  41,  53-55. 
Antiquarian,  233,  235.      See  also 

Archaeology. 
Anund,     Swedish     kings:     Brcet- 

Anund,  39;  Anund,  42;  Anund, 

or  Jacob,  62-63. 
Apocalypse,  356. 
Apostles,  Swedish,  41,  53-55,  58, 
Apraxin,  Admiral,  289. 
Arabs  49  50. 
Arboga,  108, 115, 124, 127,  161,  186, 

387. 
Arboga  articles,  161, 
Archaean  rocks,  6. 
Ardan.    See  Jordanes. 
Argus,  377;  the  Swedish,  338, 
Aristocracy,  65,  66,  101,  104,  115, 

119,  174,  175,  188,  199,  238-239, 

250-251,  256,  257,  314,  375. 
Aristocratic  republic,  republicans, 

314,  321,  352.    See  also  Nobility, 

higher. 
Arcana  Coelestia,  325. 
Archaeology,  20,  235,  265,  423-424. 
Arclibishop,   54^55,   70,  72,  74,  78, 

82,  87, 103,  111,  117,  124,  127,  139, 

143,  150,  175,  183,  189,  266-267. 
Architecture,    173,    176,    265-266, 

302-303,  430-431. 
Arctic  explorations,  424;  Sea,  24; 

Stone  Age,  15, 16, 
Ardgard,  54. 
Arlberg,  Fritz,  430. 
Arm  felt:  Charles  Gustavus,  308; 

Gustavua  Maurice,  352,  354,  356, 

357. 
Army.     See  Sweden. 
Arnoldsson,  Sigrid,  431. 
Aros,  East  (see    Upsala).      Aros, 

West  (see  Westeros). 
Aryan  race,  265.    See  also  Indo- 
European. 


Asa,  Princess,  40l 

Asa  creed,  31-84. 

Asia,  16,  34,  424. 

Askold,  49. 

Aspeboda,  134. 

Astrology,  161,  169,  252,  268,  804. 

Astronomy,  324,  333. 

Asund,  Lake,  126;  battle  of,  151. 

Atland,  Atlantica,  263-265. 

Atlantis,  264. 

Atterbom,  P.  D.  A.,  380. 

Atterdag.     See  Valdemar. 

Attundaland,  39. 

Aude,  35. 

Audils,  37-38. 

Auerbach,  B.,  388. 

Augdof,  fortress  of,  198. 

Augsburgian  Confession,  183. 

August  11.,  elector  cf  Saxony  and 

king  of  Poland,  272,  277-279, 281, 

290,  295,  297,  299. 
August,  Prince  Nicolaus,  411. 
Aulin,  Tor,  390. 
Aune.     See  Ane. 
Austria:  Swedish   empire   in    the 

Baltic  provinces,  40,  51-52. 
Austria-Hungary,    172,    223,  245, 

247,  253,  279,  319,  352,  403. 
Avignon,  97. 
Axelsson.     See  Tott. 
Axtorna,  battle  of,  168,  169, 
Aztec,  18. 


Bade,  356,  415. 

Bagge,  Jacob,  164-166,  167. 

Bailififs,  88,  103,  104,  106,  107, 109, 

114,  137,  138,  150,  151,  197. 
Baltic   dominion,  40,  51-52,  55,  57, 

164,  199,  229,  249,  292,  312. 
Baltic  Provinces,  52,  78,  198-199, 

200,  232,  282, 283,  291-292,  307. 
Baltic  Sea,  5,  21,  24,  25,  26,  49,  51, 

75,   101,   130,  199,  229,  249,  272, 

294,  305,  322,  375. 
Ban,  Militia,  417;    Papal,  77,   94, 

121, 126. 
Baner,  Sten,  170,  185,  195;  Anne, 

176;  Eric,  131;    Gustavus,  185, 

195;  Per,  195;  John,  207-208,  222- 

225  279 
Banner  of  State,  116,  118, 125, 168. 
Barangoi,  52. 

Barbro,  Stigsdotter,  134-135. 
Bark-king,  112. 


INDEX 


441 


Barn-lock,  86. 

Barocco,  261,  321,  863. 

Bastile,  428. 

Barons,  Baronies,  162, 200, 288, 251, 

257 
Bavaria,  193,  210,  211,  222. 
Beauharnais,  Eugene,  404. 
Beckstrom,  Edward,  412. 
Behm,  Sara,  321. 
Bellman,  C.  M.,  345-346,  389,  390. 
Bells,  revolt  of.    See  Revolts. 
Belt,  Lille,  245-246. 
Belt,  Store,  246-247. 
Bender,   287,  293,  294,  295;  Kala- 

balik  of,  297. 
Benedictine  monastery,  235. 
Bengt,  Duke,  86. 
Bengtsson,    Joens.    See    Oxensti- 

erna. 
Bentseby,  266. 
Benzelius:    Eric    the    Elder,    266; 

Eric  the  Younger,  237  note,  266- 

267,  322,  340. 
Benzelstierna.     See  Benzelius. 
Beowulf,  30,  31,  37. 
Bergh,  Richard,  429. 
Bergman,  T.  O.,  346. 
Bergstroem,  P.  A.,  429. 
Berlin,  223,  341. 
Bernadotte,    865,    367,    418,    421; 

Prince    Oscar,    415.      See    also 

Charles  XIV. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  71. 
Bernhard,   duke  of  Weimar,  211, 

214,  216,  217,  221. 
Bervald,  F.  N.,  390. 
Berzelius,  J.  J.,  325,  366,  380. 
Bevaeringstid,  417. 
Bible,   237;    Gothic    (see  Gothic); 

translations  of,  98,  150,  260,  355. 
Bielke,  Anna,   127,   132;    Gunilla, 

queen,  175;  Sten,  170;  Ture,  185. 
Bielo-Jesero,  47. 
Bioerkoe,  55. 

Bioern,  Swedish  kings,  42,  54,  55, 
Biorck,  0.,429. 
Biornstrcem,  F.  J.,  424. 
Biornstierna,  M.  F.  F.,  861. 
Birger,  Brosa,  76,  77,  79;  Jarl,  77, 

78-83,  86,  88;   King,  84,  87,  88- 

91,  92;  Persson,  89,  97. 
Birgitta,  St.,  97-99,  100,  130,  154. 
Birka,  42,  55,  71,  75. 
Bishops,  71,  78,  86,  87, 112-113,  127, 

128,  146-146,  183. 
Bjoernson,  B.,  388,  406. 


Black  Death,  94. 

Blanche,  queen    of    Sweden    and 

Norway,  93,  97. 
Blanche,  August,  389. 
Bleking,  5,  29,  63,  67,  93,  95,  150, 

151,  190,247,249,259,291. 
Blenda,  72. 

Blomstrand,  0.  W.,  423. 
Blot-Sven,  69,  73. 
Blucher,  General,  370. 
Bo  Jonsson.     See  Grip. 
Boccaccio,  163,  413. 
Boeclerus,  240. 
Boerhave,  330-331. 
Boerjesson,  John,  dramatist,  389; 

John,  sculptor,  430. 
Boettiger,  C.  V.,  389. 
Bogesund,  battle  of,  126-127. 
Bohemia,  210,  222,  224,  226,  228. 
Bohus,  fortress  of,  196. 
Bohuslsen,  5,  13,  17,  46,  58,  62,  196, 

229,  247,  249,  254,  307,  308. 
Bologna,  117. 

Bonaparte.     See  Napoleon. 
Bonde,     Charles    Knutsson     (see 

Charles  VIII.);   Tord,  111;  Gus- 

tavus,  250. 
Bonnier,  Eva,  429. 
Borgannaes,  107. 
Boris  of  Russia,  172. 
Bornhoeved,  battle  of,  371. 
Bornholm,  21,  164,  247,  248,  250; 

naval  battle  of,  168. 
Bosphorus,  49. 
Bosson,  Nils.     See  Sture. 
Bostroem,  C.  J.,  philosopher,   411- 

412,  423. 
Botany,  262,  321,  330,  331-333,  380, 

423. 
Bothnia,  Gulf  of,  5. 
Bothnia,  West,  363. 
Bothniensis,  N.  O.,  183,  185. 
"Bottomless  Purse,"  112. 
Botvid,  St.,  58. 
Boucher,  428. 

Bourgeoisie.     See  Burghers. 
Boye,  L.,  377. 
Brabant,  237. 
Brage-bowl,  39. 
Brahe,  Joachim,    133;    Peter,  the 

Elder,  154,  162;   Ebba,  194,235; 

Nils,  the  Elder,  214,  217;  Peter, 

the  Younger,  231,  232,  240,  250, 

251,  257;  Nils,  the  Younger,  267; 

Eric,  318;  Magnus,  374-375. 
Brahestad,  258. 


442 


INDEX 


Brandenburg,  228,  228,  234,  244, 

247,  263,   255;   Elector  of,   223; 

Great  Elector  of,  225,  244,  245, 

252. 
Brandsoe,  245-246. 
Brask,  Bishop  Hans,  126,  128,  189, 

143,  144,  146,  322,  375. 
Braun,  V.  A.  D.  von,  889. 
Braunsberg,  203. 
Bravols,  battle  of,  41,  56. 
Breitenfeld,  battles  of.    See  Leip- 

sic. 
Bremen,  64,  63,  70,  229,  245,  811. 
Bremer,  Frederica,  389,  427. 
Brenner,  S.  E.,  238. 
Brennkyrka,  battle  of,  125,  181. 
Bring.     See  Lagerbring. 
Bridget,  St.     See  Birgitta, 
Britain,  24,  25,  45,  60. 
British  Isles,  60;  Museum,  881. 
Broemsebro,  peace  treaty  at,  237. 
Broet-Anund,    See  Anund. 
Bronitz,  battle  of,  198. 
Bronze  Age,  11,  13,  16-20. 
Brunbeck,  battle  of,  138. 
Brunkeberg,  139;   battles  of,  116, 

119. 
Buchow,  naval  battle  of,  168. 
Buddenbrock,  M.  H.,  316,  817. 
Budget.    See  Sweden. 
Buff  on,  324. 
Bulgaria,  50. 
Bureus,  John,  232-235. 
Burghers,   108,  128,  144,  146,  168, 

185,  200,  201,  253. 
Burislev,  75. 
Byzantium,  Byzantine,  22-23,  27, 

28,  49,  50,  51. 


Cabinet,   878,  403;    Swedish  (see 

Sweden). 
Cadet  School.     See  Carlberg. 
Calmar.     See  Kalmar. 
Caloric  engine,  387. 
Calvinism,  183,  189. 
Canute  the  Great,  57,  58,  62. 
"Caps,"  316,  319,  320,  337,  344. 
Carlberg,  355. 
Carl.     See  Charles. 
Carelia,  88,  94. 
Carleby,  Old,  360;  New,  360. 
Carlen,  Emelie,  389,  427. 
Carin  Monsdotter,  queen,  162, 170- 

173,  177. 


Carlsten,  fortress  of,  811,  813. 
Carolin  Institute,  425. 
Carlsborg,  fortress  of,  375,  418. 
Carlscrona,  navy  yards  at,  269, 806. 
Carlson,  F.  F.,  393,  398;   Ernest, 

424. 
Carlstad,  188, 407. 
Carnage   of  Stockholm,  128,  139, 

133,  137. 
Cartesius.    See  Descartes. 
Casijn,  178. 
Caspian  Sea,  50. 
Cassander,  236. 
Castellholm,  171. 
Castles,  96,  102,  146,  178,  238,  261, 

266. 
Catechismus,  183,  260. 
Catherine,  Countess  Palatine,  284, 

239. 
Catherine  (queens  of  Sweden),  of 

Saxony-Lauenburg,  155, 156, 167; 

Stenbock,     156,    157,    177,    181; 

Monsdotter  (see  Carin  Monsdot- 
ter); Jagello,  163,  175. 
Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  348,  350, 

351,  355-356. 
Catholicism,  Catholic,  98,  172, 173, 

174,  182-184,   187,  189,  192,  240, 

244,  325,  335. 
Cavendish,  325. 
Cederstrom,  O.  R.,  874,  378;  Gus- 

tavus,  429. 
Celibacy,  79. 
Celsius,    Andrew,  321,  833;  Olof, 

Senior,     329,     333,     340;    Olof, 

Junior,  333-334. 
Celtic  swords,  21;  tribes,  21. 
Chambers  (of  the  Riksdag),  396, 

398,  899-401,  407. 
Chancellor,  of  State,  87,  189,  199, 

220,  250  (see  also  President  of  the 

Chancerv);  king's,  14,  144,  150; 

of  the  University,  263,  840;  the 

Great  (see  Axel  Oxenstierna). 
Chancery,  297,  298;    president  of 

the.  271,  313,  314,  317,  837. 
Charles  (kings  of  Sweden):   VII. 

Sverkersson,   73,   74,   75;    VIII. 

Knutsson,  10^114,  121,  339;  IX. 

155,  157,  158,  163,  167,  170-174, 

176,  179,  181-191,  204,  222,  249, 

264;  X.  Gustavus,  239-241,  242- 

249,  251,  277,  314;  XI.  249-268, 

269,  270-271,  277,  391,  408;  XII. 

182,  264,  267,  268-809,  810,  313, 

322,  326,  334,  838,  348,  856,  864: 


INDEX 


443 


Xm.  348,  350,  363,  353,  356,  363, 
365-374;  XIV.  367-378,  374-380, 
382,  383,  404;  XV.  391-413,  415. 

Charles,  Bishop,  77. 

Charles,  Jarl,  77. 

Charles  Philip,  son  of  Charles  IX., 
190,  194,  198. 

Charles,  son  of  Oscar  II.,  415. 

Charles  v.,  emperor,  151,  158. 

Charles  II.  of  England,  237. 

Charles's  Chronicle,  114. 

Charles  Frederic  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  295,  301,  310,  311. 

Charles  Peter  Ulric  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  316. 

Chauvinism,  261,  264,  321,  346,433. 

Chemistry,  333,  346,  380,  433,  435. 

Chemnitz,  battle  of,  234 

Chicago,  421,  429. 

China,  289. 

Chodkievvitz,  187. 

Christerson,  J.  C.  E.,  435. 

Christian  (kings  of  Denmark):  I. 
111-113,  116;  II.  122,  134-129, 
131,  133,  133,  137,  138,  140,148, 
151,  158;  III.  149,  164;  IV.  190, 
196-198,  304,  226-227;  V.  254, 
255;  VIII.  371-373;  IX.  403-404. 

Christian  August  (Charles  A.), 
Prince,  365-367. 

Christian  Frederic,  Prince.  See 
Christian  VIII. 

Christiania,  307,  373,  419. 

Christianity,  31,  43;  influence  of, 
53;  introduction  of,  53-55,  58; 
opposition  to,  58-61. 

Christianopel,  190. 

Christine  (queens  of  Sweden),  189, 
194,  204;  196,  204,  320-341,  343, 
263,  303,  314. 

Christine  of  Denmark,  130. 

Christine  of  Hesse,  163,  164^165. 

Christopher,  kings  of  Denmark, 
81,  and  of  Sweden,  110,  111,  113. 

Christopher's,  King,  Land  Law. 
See  Sweden,  State  Law. 

Christinehamn,  188. 

Chronica  regni  gothorum,  117. 

Chronicles,  prose,  114,  131; 
rhymed,  80,  114. 

Church,  76,  77,  78,  85,  87,  88,  89, 
111,  115,  117,  135,  140,  141,  143, 
144,  146,  149,  153,  174-176,  183, 
188,  300,  301,  360,  266,  396,  433, 
487;  law,  93,  146,  175.  See  also 
Clergy,  Bishops. 


Cimbrian  Peninsala,  36,  37.     See 

also  Jutland. 

Cincinnatus,  Order  of,  867. 

Cistercians,  71. 

Civil  service,  483. 

Clary.     See  Queen  Desideria. 

Clason,  I.  G.,  431. 

Clergy,  93,  104,  108,  117,  139,  143, 
145-146,  156,  158,  183,  185,  186, 
200,  239,  251,  334,  340,  841,  396, 
397,  398-399. 

Codania,  Codanian  Bay,  35. 

Codex  Argenteus,  385-338,  366; 
Bildstenianus,  9;  Bureanus,  9. 

Coffee  prohibited,  855. 

Coins,  60,  63;  of  need,  301-303. 

Collard,  Claude,  167. 

Colleges,  301,  333. 

Collegia,  118,  230  note. 

Cologne,  117,  336. 

Colonies,  Commerce,  Communi- 
ties, Constitution.    See  Sweden. 

Constantinople,  395. 

Constantine  Porphyrogenitus,  48. 

Continent.     See  Europe. 

Copenhagen,  139,  131,  337,  374* 
385,  403;  siege  of,  347-348;  peace 
treaty  of,  350. 

Corvey,  53,  54. 

Cossacks,  383,  385. 

Council,  Councillors,  State  (or 
royal),  87,  93,  106,  107,  108,  115, 
116,  120,  122,  128,  183,  184,  185, 
189,  190,  196,  199,  200,  280,  251, 
357,  358,  371,  373,  389,  390,  293^ 
393,  398,  300,  301,  310,  813,  814, 
318,  320,  388,  889,  844-845,  350, 
485. 

Council,  Town,  116,  136,  128,  165. 

Councillor  of  Commerce,  837. 

Counties,  counts,  162,300,338,351, 
357. 

Courland,  53,  803,  344,  283. 

Cracow,  244,  378. 

Creutz,  G.  P.,  339,  345. 

Croats,  308. 

Croi,  Duke  de,  375. 

Cronhamn,  J.  P.,  413. 

Cronstedt,  Charles,  395;  Olof,  859- 
860. 

Crownlands,  338,  255,  257;  restitu- 
tion of,  96, 103,  111,  383,  338,  343, 
356-358,  271. 

Crown  prince,  316,  317,  819,  330, 
871,  893,  406,  415,  487, 

Crusell,  B.  F.,  89,  413. 


444 


INDEX 


Crusenstolpe,  M.  J.,  377,  389. 

Crusades,  70,  73,  77,  78,  94,  185. 
Czar  (see  Russia),  Czarina,  289. 
Czarniecki,  Stefan,  244. 
Cuno,  John  C,  326. 


Dacke  "Feud,"  150-151. 

Dacke,  Nils,  150-151. 

Dag,  36. 

Dahlberg,  Eric,  245-246,  247,  359, 
265-266,  277. 

Dahlgren,  Frederic  Aug.,  389. 

Dahlquist,  C.  G.,  390. 

Dal,  province  of,  5, 107, 308;  River, 
5,  138. 

Dalecarlia,  Dalecarlians,  5, 16,  105, 
106.  107,  108,  116,  119,  121,  131, 
133-139,  146,  147,  148,  149,  166, 
185,  317,  349. 

Dalin,  O.  von,  321,  837-339,  348. 

Daedalus  Hyperboreus,  822. 

*'Daljunker,"  147. 

Dal  man,  V.F.,  394. 

Danckvvardt,  Henric,  311. 

Danes,  Danish.     See  Denmark. 

Danielsson,  A.,  377. 

Dannebrog,  116. 

Danube,  22,  28,  224,  328. 

Dantzic,  112,  203. 

David,  St.,  58. 

Dearth,  118,  176,  261. 

Decamerone,  163,  413. 

De  G^eer.     See  Geer. 

De  la  Gardie.     See  Gardie. 

Delaware  River,  232. 

Democracy,  Democratic,  64, 66,  66, 
114,  115,  117,  120,  121,  199,  200, 
260,  352,  364. 

Demotika,  297,  299. 

Denmark,  6,  10,  12,  13,  21,  29,  30, 
36,  87,  38,  39,  40,  41,  42,  52,  53, 
54,  56-57,  58,  60.  62,  63,  70,  72, 
76,  77,  81,  83,  89,  90,  91,  95,  100, 
103,  105,  106,  108,  111,  116,  117, 
120,  121,  122,  124,  125,  126-127, 
128,  131,  133,  135,  136,  148,  149, 
164,  166,  167,  168,  174,  195-198, 
203,  226-228,  244,  245-248,  250, 
253-255,  259,  273-274,  290,  295- 
296,  299,  307,  311,  312,  316,  343, 
345,  848-349,  355,  357,  363,  866, 
867,  368,  371-373,  385-386,  888, 
892,  401,  405,  406,  415,  426,  430. 

Dennewitz,  battle  of,  870. 


Descartes,  Reii6,  240-241,  847. 

Desideria,  Queen,  882. 

Diderot,  347,  429. 

Diet,  374,  879,  892,  402.  See  also 
Riksdag  and  Norwegian  Stor- 
thing. 

Dietriechson,  Lorenz,  405. 

Dilettantism,  412,  426. 

Diplomacy,  252,  259,  313,  315,  367, 
402,  434. 

Dir,  49. 

Dirschau,  202. 

Ditmarschen,  120. 

Dimitri,  173,  187;  false  Dimitris, 
187-188. 

Dniepr  River,  284,  286,  287;  catar- 
acts of  the,  48. 

Doebeln,  G.  C.  von,  358,  360. 

Doemitz,  battle  of,  233. 

Dolmens,  18. 

Domalde,  35. 

Domar,  36. 

Dor  pat,  200,  281,  282;  University 
of  (see  Universities). 

Dortrecht.  237. 

Douglas,  L.  V.  A.,  435. 

Drama,  345,  846,  388,  389,  890,  4l2, 
413,  426^27,  431^32. 

Dramatic  singers,  390,  413,  431. 

Drontheim,  diocese  or  district  of, 
58,  112,  247,  248,  250,  308,  811, 
871. 

Drottningholm,  castle  of,  803,  362. 

Drotsete,  Drotset  (Riks-),  87,  91, 
96,  102,  108,  189,  199,  240,  250. 

Duchies,  82,  158,  161,  185-186. 

Duenamuende,  292. 

Dufnaes,  battle  of,  181. 

DUncker,  C.  H.  L.,  412. 

Dutch,  Dutchman.     See  Holland. 

Dusseldorf  School,  429. 

Dvina,  crossing  of  the,  277. 

Dygve,  86. 


E 


Eadgils.    See  Audils. 

East  Gothland.     See  Gothland. 

Ebo,  54. 

Ecclesiastics.     See  Clergy. 

Edda,  Eddie  songs,  61,  66, 157, 233, 

270,  846;  Snorre's,  84,  843. 
Edlund,  Eric,  428. 
Edsoere  laws,  82,  86. 
Education,  117,  201,  232,  260,  379. 
Eger,  211. 


INDEX 


445 


Egril,  37. 

Egino,  68. 

Ehrenstrahl,  D.  K.,  803;  School  of 
Painters,  303,  428. 

Ehrensverd,  Augustinus,  317,  350, 
359;  Ch.  A.,  347,  350-351,  355. 

Eider,  River,  403. 

Eidsvold,  meeting  held  at,  371. 

Eka,  Cecilia  of,  139,  130. 

Ekeberg,  156. 

Elbing,  203. 

Elective  kingdom.     See  Kingdom. 

Electricity,  324. 

Elfsborg,  152,  166,  174,  188,  196, 
197,  198;  New,  311. 

Elfsson,  Swan,  135-136. 

Elgaros,  battle  of,  76. 

Elisabeth  of  Russia,  316. 

Elizabeth  of  England,  98,  1613. 

Elmblad,  Johannes,  431. 

Elsass,  221. 

Elsinore,  93,  247,  368. 

Emigration,  290,  319,  432-433. 

Emund,  63,  67,  68. 

Engelbrekt,  Engelbrektsson,  105- 
109,  110,  115,  121,  137,  146;  song 
about,  114. 

England,  English,  22,  40,  52,  58, 82, 
98,  187,  189,  237,  245,  252,  259, 
283,  299,  305,  306-307,  315,  322, 
334,  349,  355,  356,  357,  363,  369, 
370,  371,  374,  379,  388. 

Eric  (Danish  kings):  Ejegod,  69; 
Ghpping,  83,  84;  Menved,  89,  91; 
of  Pomerania(see  Swedish  King 
Eric  XIII.). 

Eric,  Norwegian  Jarl,  57. 

Eric  (Swedish  kings):  36;  36-37;  54; 
Edmundsson,  52,  55;  Bioernson 
Begersael,  55-57;  68;  Arssel,  69, 
71;  IX.  (St.  Eric),  73-74,  75,  78, 
80,  127,  130;  X.  67,  77;  XI.  77- 
79,  80;  XII.  94-95,  96;  XIH. 
101-110;  XrV.  155, 157,  158, 161- 
173,  177,  264,  334. 

Eric  (Swedish  princes):  Birgersson, 
83;  Magnusson,  87,  89-92;  Valde- 
marsson,  83,  84. 

Eric's  Chronicle,  80,  85,  89,  114. 

Ericson,  J.  E.,430. 

Ericsson,  Joesse,  106,  137;  John, 
887,  424,  425;  Nils,  387;  Chris- 
tian, 430. 

Eriksgata,  71,  93,  138. 

Erimbert,  55. 

Eskil,  St.,  58. 


EskiPs  apartments,  170. 

Essen,  H.  H.  von,  372. 

Esthonia,  Esthonians,  39,  53,  76, 
77,  98, 162,  174, 198, 201, 282, 307- 
312. 

Ettak,  battle  of,  84, 

Eugene,  Prince  of  Sweden,  429, 
430. 

Eugenie,  Princess,  411. 

Europe,  6,  12,  16,  17,  28,  44,  82, 98, 
189,  204,  229,  235,  342,  245,  254, 
255,  259,  264,  272,  278,  285,  308, 
324,  334,  335,  336,  363,  869,  374, 
376,  381,  401,  414,  424,  429. 

Expositions,  Scandinavian,  406, 
436;  World's,  413,  421,  429. 

Ey stein,  38. 

Eyforr,  48. 

Euphemia,  Princess,  95. 

Estates,  108, 158, 159, 184,  200, 204* 
205,  238,  240,  249,  256,  271,  278, 
293,  310,  314,  318,  338,  849,  350, 
355,  383,  394,  398-399,  400. 

Ethnography,  265. 


Fahlbeck,  p.,  424. 

Fal  keeping,  battle  of,  97. 

Fallstedt,  L,  430. 

Falster,  247. 

Falun,  188,  152. 

"Father,  The,"  427. 

Father  of  Swedish  Industry,  334* 

Fehrbellin,  battle  of,  252,  253. 

Femern,  naval  battles  of,  227. 

Ferdinand  (emperors):  II.  198,203; 
III.  221,  228. 

Fero  Islands,  371. 

Fersen,  Axel  von,  the  Elder,  324j 
the  Younger,  351,  366-367. 

Feudalism,  82. 

Feud  of  the  Counts,  149. 

Fiefs,  96,  103,  151,  162,  244. 

Finance.     See  Sweden. 

Fine  Arts,  Philosophy  of,  347. 

Finland,  Finns,  Finnish,  10, 15,26, 
35,  36,  48,  55,  71,  73,  75,  78,  81, 
88,  89,  98,  111,  113,  118,  119,  133, 
152,  163,  171,  173,  184,  185,  186, 
187,  188,  193,  199,  200,  220,  231, 
232,  238,  283,  292,  807,  312,  818, 
316,  317,  348,  357-864,  367,  413- 
413,  436,  437;  language,  8,  341. 

Finn  mark,  378. 

Finnwoods,  ISd. 


446 


INDEX 


Fiedrundaland,  89. 

Fiolner,  85. 

Fleming,  Clas  Ericsson,  184;  Clas 
Larsson,  227;  Herman,  248,  250. 

Flemish  art,  173. 

Flensburg,  104. 

Flower  king  of  the  North,  332. 

Fogelberg,  B.  E.,  412,  480. 

Fogel  Grip,  232. 

Fogelwick,  118. 

Folk  lore,  265,  381. 

Folkungs,  76,  78,  79,  81,  97,  180. 

Folkung  dynasty,  80-99. 

Folksriksdag  433. 

Forsberg,  Nils,  429. 

France,  French,  22,  45,  52,  68,  72, 
152,  187,  189,  206,  221,  222,  229, 
233,  245,  252,  255,  270,  271,  315, 
318,  322,  331,  339,  343,  344,  345, 
351,  852,  355,  356,  357.  368,  371, 
372,  382,  388,  414,  422.  428,  429. 

Franciscan,  convent,  87;  Church 
(see  Riddarholm's  Church). 

Franconia,  221. 

Franco-Prussian  War,  409. 

Franz  Joseph's  Land,  424. 

Frankfurt,  209. 

Francke,  A.  H.,  289. 

Franks,  Frankish,  29,  210,  236,  341. 

Frantz,  Albrecht,  216. 

Franzen,  F.  M.,  381. 

Frederic  I.  of  Sweden,  312-317,  318, 
335. 

Frederic  (kings  of  Denmark):  I. 
148;  11.  164,  166;  III.  246,  247; 
IV.  273-274,  290,  295,  299;  V. 
316,  317;  VI.  367;  VII    402.  403. 

Frederic  of  Augustenborg,  367 

Frederic,  crown  prince  of  Den- 
mark, 406. 

Frederic  of  Holstein,  272-274. 

Frederic  of  the  Palatinate,  202,  210 

Frederic  (kings  of  Prussia):  I.  296; 
II.  (the  Great),  318,  319,  343 

Frederic  William,  the  Grand  Elec- 
tor.    See  Brandenburg. 

Frederica,  Queen,  356. 

Fredericia,  fortress  of,  245,  248. 

Fredericshall,  308,  322. 

Fredericshamn,  316;  peace  treaty 
at,  363. 

Fredericstad,  372 

Fredericsten,  308. 

FredkuUa.     See  Margaret. 

Fredman,  390. 

Free  trade,  887,  407-408. 


Freinshemius,  John,  340. 

Frey,  32,  34. 

Friedland.     See  Wallenstein. 

Fries,  Elias,  380. 

Frithiof's  Saga,  381. 

Frode  (Danish  kings):  85,  37. 

Froeding,  Gustaf,  428. 

Funen,  island  of,  227,  246,  248,  880, 

Fuxerna,  battles  of,  69. 

Fyris,  River,  86. 

Fyrisvols,  battles  of,  86,  37,  56. 


O 


Gad,  Dr.  Hemjng,  121,  122,  126, 
127,  129. 

Gadebush,  battle  of,  295,  296. 

Gagarin,  governor,  289. 

Gallia,  Gallic,  20 

Gardarike,  52. 

Gautland.     See  Gothaland. 

Gardie,  Pontus  de  la,  167,  174,  187, 
235;  Jacob,  187-188, 190, 194, 198- 
199,  234,  235;  Magnus  Gabriel, 
234-235,  237,  250,  251,  252,  257, 
263. 

Gauts,  28,  29,  30,  31,  47,  105. 

Gauzbert,  54. 

Geatas,  30-31. 

Gefle,  138. 

Gegerfelt,  K.  F.  von,  431;  William, 
429. 

Geijer,  Eric  Gustavus,  380,  393. 

Geijerstam,  Gustaf  of,  427. 

Geirthiof,  38. 

Gellandri,  48. 

Gellivara,  7. 

Gemauerthoff,  battle  of,  282. 

Geology,  324,  325. 

George  I.  of  England,  306. 

George  Sand,  388. 

Gepidae,  29. 

Gerhard,  Count  of  Holstein,  84. 

Germania,  26. 

Germans,  Germany,  12,  21,  22,  54, 
58,  75,  80,  81,  83,  85,  90,  93,  96, 
97,  98,  100,  101, 104, 105, 106,  116, 
122,  127,  132,  150,  151,  152,  158, 
168,  189,  190,  193,  202,  203,  204, 
205,  210,  213,  214,  221,  222,  223, 
224,  226,  228,  229,  230,  233,  239, 
244,  252,  264,  287,  299,  303,  307, 
321,  346,  370,  380,  385-386,  401- 
405,  414-418,  428,  429;  emperor, 
122.  151,  158,  193,  202,  209,  210, 


INDEX 


44? 


dll,  S12,  234,  228,  285,  245,  981, 
299,  416;  Order,  163-168. 

Ctestilren,  battle  of,  77. 

Gestrikland,  5,  16,  138. 

Gibraltar  of  the  North,  859l 

Giljam,  G.  F.,  486. 

Gisslan.    See  Hostages. 

Glaciers,  6. 

Glipping.   See  Eric  (Danish  kings). 

Glom  River,  307,  308. 

Glossarium  sviogothicura,  343. 

Glucksburg,  371. 

Gluntarne,  389. 

Goertz,  G  H.,  301-302,  804,  80ft- 
307,  311. 

Goetar.     See  Gauts. 

Gold  finds,  23-23. 

Golumbo,  battle  of,  244. 

Gospel,  53-55,  104,  146,  207. 

Gothahamn,  116. 

Gotha  Canal,  305-306,  322,  875- 
376. 

Gothaland,  5, 14,  19,  24,  25,  28,  42, 
43,  68,  83,  84,  185,  230. 

Gothland,  East,  5,  7,  17,  31,  89,  41, 
71,  98,  111,  168,  185,  186;  West, 
5,  7,  13,  17,  31,  37,  41,  46,  58,  59, 
61,  67,  68,  70,  76,  77,  83,  84,  96, 
111,  126,  148,  167,  168,  197,  229, 
321,  334,  415;  Island  of,  6,  21,  22, 
25,  66,  82,  85,  95,  103,  105,  111, 
113,  117,  120,  143,  165,  227,  254, 
304,  416. 

Gothenburg,  10,  188,  196,  198,  200, 
226,  229,  231,  232,  249,  254,  335, 
349,  369,  422,  438. 

Gothenburg  University.  See  Uni- 
versities. 

Gotha  River,  10,  46,  116,  196,  198. 

Goths,  of  Continental  Europe,  22, 

28,  30,  235-236,  263;  of  Sweden 
(see  Gauts);  Teutons,  43;  East, 

29,  71;  West,  29,  70,  71. 
Gothic,    151,    220,    238,  341,  342; 

Bible,  67  (see  further  Codex 
Argenteus);  invasions,  28;  lan- 
guage, 235,  237-238;  society,  881; 
glossary,  237. 

Gothic  law.  West,  66,  67,  70. 

Gotland,  43. 

Gottorp.    See  Holstein-Gottorp. 

Ctovernment.    See  Sweden. 

Governor,  184,  202,  231,  232. 

Governor-general,  199,  203,  329, 
231,  290,  291,  371;  of  Norway, 
366,  375,  386,  394-895,  41&-419. 


Grabow,  Mathilde,  481. 

Grammar,  40. 

Greece,  Greek,  49,  50,  62,  285,  287, 
265;  myths,  53;  church,  288,  856. 

Geer,  Louis  de,  201,  326-227,  231; 
Louis,  893,  397,  398. 

Gregory,  VII.  69;  IX.  78. 

Grimm's  law,  342. 

Grimsted,  246. 

Grip,  Bo  Jonsson,  96,  102. 

Gripenstedt,  J.  A.,  387,  893,  898, 
403,  404,  407. 

Gripsholm,  96,  107,  152,  165,  168, 
171,  173,  182,  362. 

Gross-beeren,  battle  of,  870. 

Grubbe,  Sam,  411. 

Guadeloupe,  island  of,  370. 

Gualther,  236. 

Gude,  405. 

Gudlaug,  36-37. 

Guinea,  African,  233. 

Gullberg,  fort  of,  196-197. 

Gullbrandson,  Ellen,  431. 

Gunilla,  Queen.     See  Bielke. 

Gurzo,  battle  of,  203. 

Gustavian  period,  837,  339,  84&- 
364. 

Gustavus,  Adolphus  Society,  319. 

Gustavus  (kings  of  Sweden):  L 
Vasa,  125,  136, 138,  139, 130-160, 
161,  165,  168,  170,  178,  177,  178, 
199,  363,  322,  334,  344,  349;  XL 
Adolphus,  173,  190,  193-219,  220, 
222,  225,  230,  232,  234,  240,  243, 
250,  258,  314,  344;  IIL  319-320, 
832,  334,  839,  843-353,  354,  879, 
387,431;  IV.  Adolphus,  352,  358- 
362,  366,  373,  375,  415. 

Gustavus  (princes  of  Sweden); 
Ercisson  (see  Vasa);  Prince  of 
Vasa,  366;  Frans  G.  Oscar,  388, 
389,  418,  436;  Oscar  G.  Adol- 
phus, crown  prince,  414,  487. 

Guta,  Saga,  67. 

Gutai,  28. 

Gutnic,  Guts,  67,  87,  105. 

Gutorm,  Jarl,  74,  76. 

Guttones,  24,  25. 

Gylden,  J.  A.  H.,  423. 

Gyldenloeve,  general,  254;  fort  o^ 
308. 

Gyllenborg,  Charles,  817,  837;  O. 
F.,  339,  845. 

Gvllencreutz,  Charles  G.,  268,  808. 

Gyllenhielm,  C.  C,  187. 

Gyllenstierna,  Christine,  137-130^ 


448 


INDEX 


130,  131,  140,  142,  147, 149,  156, 
158;  John,  256,  312. 
Gymnastics,     380;     Central     In- 
stitute of,  380. 


H 


Hadrian    IV.     See    Nicolaus   of 

Alba. 
Haeffner,  389. 
Hagrbard,  36. 
Hagborg.  A.,  429. 
Hake,  36-37. 
HakoD  (Norwegian  kings):  79,  81, 

91,  92;  Magnusson,  94-95,  100. 
Hakon,  Swedish  regent,  68. 
Halberstadt,  224. 
Haieygians,  36. 
Hall,  P.  A.,  428. 
Hal  land,  5,  13,  48,  84,  93,  95,  167, 

196,  197,  227,  229,  247,  249,  254, 

337. 
Hallen,  Andreas,  390. 
Hallstroem,  Ivar,  390;  Peter,  427. 
Halmstad,  108,  166,  254. 
Halsten,  68,  70. 
Hamburg,   54,   63,   70,  81,  83,  83; 

peace  treaty  of,  319. 
Hammarby,  332. 
Handbook.    See  Ritual. 
Hanover,  299,  311. 
Hans.    See  John  II. 
Hansa,  Hanseatic,  81-82,  101,  108, 

104,  116,  132. 
Hansson,  Ola,  427. 
Haraker,  battle  of,  112. 
Harald,  king  of  Denmark,  56. 
Harald   (kings  of  Norway):  Fair- 
hair,  55;  Hardrade,  68. 
Harald,  Hildetand,  king  of  Sweden 

and  Denmark,  41,  51. 
Hare's  Leap,  6. 
Hartekamp,  331. 
Hartelius,  T,  J.,  424. 
Hartmansdorff,  J.  A.  von,  883, 384- 

385. 
Hasselberg,  Peter,  430. 
•'Hats,"  political  party,  316,  817, 

319,  320,  337,  338. 
Havamal,  157. 
Havel  River,  206. 
Heathen  Revival,  59-61. 
Hedberg,  Frans,  389;  Thor,  487. 
Hedenblad,  Ivar,  431. 
Hedenstierna,  A.,  428. 
Hedin,  Sven,  424. 


Hedlund,  S.  A.,  438;  Hans,  481. 
Hedvig,  qnieen  of  Denmark,  100. 
Hedvig,  Eleonore,  of  Sweden,  243, 

249,     253,     255,    271,    299,    300; 

Elisabeth  Charlotte,  366. 
Hedvig,  Sophie,  Princess,  269,  310. 
Heidenstam,  V.  von,  427. 
Heimskringla,  31,  33-41,  265. 
Heir-apparent,    316-317,    865-366, 

367,  368,  420. 
Heinsius,  240. 
Helga.    See  Olga. 
Helge.    See  Oleg. 
Helge,  Danish  king,  38. 
Hellquist,  C.  G.,  429. 
Helsingborg,  290,  336;  battle  of, 

291,  296. 
Heinrich  (the  Lion),  75. 
Helsingfors,    152,  317;    battle  of, 

316;    University     of    (see    Uni- 
versities). 
Helsingland,  Helsings,  5,  138,  317, 

361;  regiment  of,  360-361. 
Helsingoer.     See  Elsinore. 
Hessleholm,  battle  of,  91. 
Helvig,  Queen,  84. 
Henric,  St.,  73,  75. 
Herger,  54. 
Herjedal,  5,  227. 
Herredag  (-ar),  88. 
Herschel,  324. 
Herulians,  28,  29,  48,  66. 
Hervadsbro,  battle  of,  81. 
Hesse,  205. 
Heterodoxy,  380. 
Hielmar  Lake,  109. 
Hierta:  Hans  (see  Jaerta);    Lars, 

377. 
Hildebrand,  Hans,  423. 
Hildebrandsson,  H.  H.,  434. 
Hillberg,  Emil,  431. 
Hillestrcem,  Peter,  347. 
Hiortsberg,  L.,  390. 
Hising,  island  of,  188,  196. 
Historia     de     Gentibus     Septen- 

trionalibus,  143. 
History,  Historians,  11,  24-32,  33- 

34,  44,  46-47,  48,  50,  64,  80,  114, 

142,   282,  321,  333-334,  337-389, 

380,  389,  393,  412-413,  423,  424, 

426. 
Hoeckert,  J.  F.,  412,  429. 
Hoegquist,  Emelie,  390. 
Hoeijer,  B.  C.  H..   347,   356,   380, 

411. 
Hoejer,  Nils,  434;  Magnus,  424. 


INDEX 


U9 


Hoerberg,  Peter,  847. 

Hoerningsholm,  176,  177,  178, 179, 
181. 

HcBJentorp,  197,  336. 

Hofva,  battle  at,  83. 

Hogland,  naval  battle  at,  348. 

Hoiaveden  (Holavid),  battle  at, 
111. 

Holland,  13, 198,  201,  226,  227,  233, 
286-237,  245,  247,  248,  252,  253, 
264,  283,  322,  330,  331,  334,  840. 

Holmfrid,  58. 

Holmgard,  52. 

Holmg-er,  78. 

Holmstroem,  333. 

Holstein,  103,  104,  112,  226,  227, 
244,  255,  271,  273,  274,  385,  403. 
405;  counts  of,  84,  93,  149,  228, 
271,  272. 

Holstein-Gottorp,  243,  295,  301. 

Holy  Alliance,  381. 

Holy  Virgin,  228. 

Holovzin,  battle  of,  284. 

Horn:  Clas  Kristersson,  Baron, 
162, 167-168;  Henric,  174;  Evert, 
198;  Gustavus,  207-208,  221-222, 
226;  Arvid  Bern  hard,  272,  278, 
284,  293,  298,  310-311,  313-316, 
337;  Rudolph,  282;  Jacob,  318. 

Hotuna,  play  at,  90-91. 

Hova,  counts  of,  149. 

Huet,  240. 

Hugleik  (O.  E.  HygeUc):  Swedish 
king,  36;  Danish  king,  38. 

Humor,  233,  346,  389,  390,  438. 

Hungary,  68,  245,  299,  322. 

Husaby,  58,  62. 

Hvasser,  Elisa,  413. 

Hvin.    See  Tiodolf. 

Hygelac.    See  Hugleik. 


Uroslap,  48,  51,  62. 

Ibn,  Fosslan,  50. 

Ibsen,  H.,  405,  431. 

Iceland,  Icelanders,  Icelandic,  88, 
52,  56,  60-61,  93,  235;  language, 
9;  sagas,  40,  52,  67,  297;  scalds, 
sagamen,  60-61. 

Iddefjord,  322. 

Ifvarsson,  Charles,  407. 

Igor,  48,  51. 

Ihre,  John,  821,  389-843. 

Illrade.    See  Ingiald. 

Imports.    See  Sweden. 


Imperial  army:  Imperialists,  203, 

303,  309,  316,  317,  331,  334,  335, 

238;  crown  lands,  210,  235. 
Indelningsverk,  Indelta,  358,  408, 

417. 
Indensalmi,  battle  of,  358. 
Indians,  333. 

Indo-European  language,  8. 
Industry,  176. 
Inge  (Swedish  kings):  the  Elder, 

68-70,  73;  the  Younger,  70. 
Ingeborg,      duchesses,      91,      92; 

princesses,  58,  78,  80,  89,  415. 
Ingegerd,  Princess,  61-63;  Queen, 

76. 
Ingermanland  (Ingria),   174,   199, 

331,  373,  274,  282,  307,  312. 
Inge  mar,  84. 

Ingiald,  Illrade,  39^0,  42,  64. 
Ingria.     See  Ingermanland. 
Ingbar.     See  Igoe. 
Innocent  III.,  77. 
Interchanging  dynasties,  74-79. 
Intelligence  party,  408,  410. 
Interdict.     See  Ban. 
Iron  Age,  11,  19,  20-24. 
Isala,  135. 
Isborsk,  47. 
Isiaslaf  68. 

Italy,  Italians,  22,  98, 106,  121,  236b 
Ivar,  Master,  131. 
Ivar,  Vidfamne,  40,  51. 
Ivarsson,  Ivar,  of  Stroemstad,  170l 


Jacob.    See  Anund  Jacob. 
Jacobi,  Petrus.    See  Sunnanvaeder, 
Jsegerhorn,  G.  H.,  359-360;  J.  A., 

348. 
Jaerta,  Hans,  365. 
Jagello.     See  Catherine. 
Jansson,  Eugene,  439. 
Jankowitz,  battle  of,  338,  339. 
Japhet,  363. 
Jarl,  iarls,  43,  57-58,  74,  87;  of  th€ 

realm,  74. 
Jaroslaf.    See  laroslaf . 
Jedvard,  73. 

Jemtland,  5,  63,  70,  337,  308,  811. 
Jerusalem,  97. 
Jesuits,  175,  183,  184. 
Joen  keeping,  120,  330. 
Jcens,     Bengtsson.      See     Oxeit 

stierna. 
Joesse,  Ericsson.    See  Ericsson. 


450 


INDEX 


John,  archbishop,  75;   duke,  186, 

189,  197;  prince,  72. 
John  (kings):  I.  77;  II.  Hans,  119- 

120,  123,   130-131;   UI.  166,  167, 

158,   163,  169,  170-172,  173-176, 

180,  182,  186, 188,  235. 
John,  ij  Casirair,    count   of   Pala- 

tinate-Zweibrucken,  239. 
John,  Casimir,   king   of   Poland. 

See  Vasa. 
Johannes,       Hagni       (Johaooes 

Magnus),  114,  142-148,  268. 
John,  J.  C,  889. 
Jomsborg,  56. 
Jordanes,  29,  34,  44,  263. 
Jornandes.     See  Jordanes. 
Jorsalafare.     See  Sigurd. 
Jorund,  36-37. 
Josephine,  Queen,  382. 
Josephsson,  J.  A.,  389,  418;  Broflt, 

Juel,*Niels,253,  254. 
Justinian,  28. 
Jueterbogk,  battle  of,  228. 
Jutland,  Jutes,  26.  80,  81,  87,  48, 

131,  132,  226,  245,  248,  38«. 
Junius,  Franziskus,  237. 
Juntas,  battle  of,  359,  360. 


KfflPPLiNGEHOLM,    Massacre     of, 

101. 
Kagg,  Lars,  250. 

Kalabalik  of  Bender.     See  Bender. 
Kalloe,  132. 
Kalmar,  93,  101,  116,  122,  182,  183, 

190;  Nyckel,  232;  Recess  of,  119; 

Union  of  (see  Union). 
Kalmucks,  288. 
Kamenski,  M.  K.,  361. 
Kansler.    See  Chancellor. 
Kant,  324,  347. 
Karelen.     See  Carelia. 
Karin.    See  Carin. 
Karl.     See  Charles. 
Karlberg.     See  Carlberg. 
Karleby,  71;  see  also  Carldby, 
Karlskrona.     See  Carlskronat 
Karlsson.    See  Carlsson. 
Karlson,  Valfried,  431. 
Karlstad.     See  Carlstad. 
Kasan,  288. 

Katarina.  See  Catherine. 
Keksholra.  See  Kexholno, 
Kerkholm,  battle  at,  187. 


Kellgren,  J.  H.,  845. 

Kettilmundsson,  Mattias,  91,  ftS, 

Kettilsson,  Eric,  97. 

Kexholm,  174,  188,  199,  292,  302, 

Key,  Emil,  407;  E.  A.  H.,  424. 

Kief,  46,  49,  59. 

Kiel,  371;  Bay  of  (see  Skiel). 

Kierulf,  Halfdan,  405. 

Kingdom,  elective,    64,    65,    310; 

hereditary,  65,  150,  151, 186, 189, 

190,  310. 
"KingMartha."  SeeLeijonhufvud. 
Kjellberg,  F.,  430. 
Klercker,  Charles  N.,  368. 
Klingspoe,  W.  M.,  358. 
Klusina,  188. 

Knapnoefde.     See  Ragnvald. 
Kneroed,  peace  treaty  of,  198. 
Kniephausen,  Dodo  von,  214,  21fi, 

218. 
Knights,  200. 
Knightly    Chapter   (see    Riddar- 

holm);  orders,  818. 
Knorring,  Sophie  von,  389,  427. 
Knud.     See  Canute. 
Knut  (Swedish    kings),  Ericsson, 

74-76;  the  Tall,  78,  81. 
Knut,   Folkung,  81;    Bishop,  108; 

Master,  141-143. 
Koenigsmarck,    von,  H.  C.,   286, 

258;  O.  W.,  258. 
Koch,  Axel,  423. 
Keeping,  107. 
Koerling,  Aug.,  431. 
Kol,    king   (Eric    Arsael),  69,  78; 

pretender,  75. 
Kolbrasnna.     See  Anund  Jacob. 
Kollandsoe,  69. 
Kommunalstaemmor,  395. 
Konungafrid,  86. 
Konghaell,  Kungksell,  62,  69. 
Kopparberg,  105,  133 
Krakow,  Morton,  196-197. 
Kreuger,  Nils,  349. 
Kristian,  Kristiern.  See  Christian. 
Kristina.     See  Christine. 
Kristofer.     See  Christopher. 
Krivitchi,  47. 
Kronberg,  Julius,  429. 
Kronborg,  fortress  of,  247,  248. 
Krusenstierna,  J.  E.  von,  435. 
Kyrkomoetet,  396. 


Laaland,  246. 

Labor  question,  418,  433. 


INDEX 


451 


Lacroze,  M.,  341. 

Ladoga,  Lake,  199. 

Ladugardsland,  battle  of,  134. 

Ladulas  (Barn-lock).    See  Magnus. 

L«n,  7,  231,  395. 

Lagerbielke,  Gustavus,  407. 

Lagerloef,  Selma,  437. 

Laholm,  84. 

Lallerstedt,  E.,  431. 

Landskrona  (in  Sweden),  battle 
of,  254  (in  Finland),  88. 

Landsting,  395-396,  399,  407. 

Landstorm,  417. 

Landtmanna  party,  407-408,  410, 
416. 

Landtraarskalk,  300,407. 

Landtvasrn,  417. 

Lange,  Lorenz,  389. 

Langeland,  246. 

Languedoc,  167. 

La  Place,  324. 

Lapland,  Lapmark,  Laps,  5, 10,  15, 
16,  104,  330;  language,  8,  341; 
"Divine  service  in  the  Lap- 
mark,"  439. 

Lappo,  battle  of,  358. 

Lars.     See  Laurentius. 

Larsson,  Thomas,  195;  Liss  Olof, 
407;  Marcus,  412,  429;  Carl,  429. 

Latin,  98,  117,  142,  220,  265,  328. 

Lauenburg,  402,  405. 

Laurentius.  See  Andresa  and 
Petri. 

Laval,  Gustavus  de,  435. 

Lavoisier,  325. 

Laws.    See  Sweden. 

League,  Catholic,  189. 

Lech,  battle  of,  210. 

Leckoe,  187,  251. 

Leczinski  (see  Stanislav),  427. 

Leffler,A  M.  (Mittag-),  424;  Anne 
Charlotte,  427. 

Leibnitz,  266. 

Leijonhufvud,  383  note;  Margaret 
(see  Margaret,  queens  of 
Sweden);  Martha  (King  Martha), 
155;  Sten,  baron,  163,  170. 

Leire,  38. 

Leipsic,  117,  218, 334,  388;  first  bat- 
tle of,  306-309;  second  battle  of, 
225-226. 

Lena,  battle  of,  76. 

Lenaeus,  J.,  339. 

Lenngren,  Anne  Marie,  346. 

Leonidas,  the  Swedish,  334, 

Leopold,  C.  G.,  345. 


Leopold  I.,  emperor   (1640-1705), 

325. 
Leuchtenberg,  382 
Levertin,  Oscar,  427,  428. 
Lewenhaupt,  282  note;  A.  L.,  383, 

383,  384.  285-287;  C.  E.,  316,  317. 
Leyden,  331. 
Libau,  203. 
Liberty,  song  of,   114;  period  of, 

310-342,  320-321. 
Libraries,  99. 
Lidner,  Bengt,  346. 
Liesna,  battle  of,  285. 
Lie  wen,  H.  H.  von,  298-299. 
Liljefors,  Bruno,  429. 
Lindberg,  A.,  430„ 
Lindblad,   A.  F.,  389;    Otto,  389, 

413. 
Lindeberg,  A.,  377. 
Linden,  Mathilde,  431. 
Lind,  Jenny,  390,  413. 
Li nd holm  (-en)  in   Scania,  97;  in 

Upland,  130. 
Lindskiold,  E.,  270. 
Ling,  P.  H.,  380,  381. 
Linkoeping,  71,  77,  80,  85,  108,  112, 

121, 185, 186,  195;  conference  at, 

72. 
Linnaeus  (von  Linne),  Charles,  337- 

333. 
Lithuania,  384. 
Literature.     See  Sweden. 
Liturgia,  175-176,  183. 
Liuksiala  173. 
Livonia,  Livonians,  163,  163,  187, 

198,  303,  303,  223,  231,  250,  258, 

273,  277,  281,  382.  283,  290-291, 

307,  312. 
Lober  Brook,  207. 
Loccenius,  John,  240. 
Locke,  347. 

Lodbrok.     See  Ragnar. 
Loedcese,  83,  84,  111;  New,  116, 153, 

196,  197. 
London,  367,  333,  336,  337,  331,  334, 

340. 
Longobardians,  38,  39. 
Lord,  300. 

Lothringia,  163,  169. 
Louis  le  Debonnaire  (the  Pious), 

48,  53;   XIV.    235,  252,  254-255, 

259,  280,  305;  XVI.  351-352,  367. 
Louise,  Princess,  406;  Queen,  393, 

411. 
Louise  Ulrica,  Queen,  317,  338. 
Lovisa,     See  Louise. 


452 


INDEX 


Lubeck,  75,  81, 83,  85, 122, 182, 140, 

148,  166, 166,  168,  316,  371. 
Lucidor,  Lasse  (Johansson),  233. 
Lulea,  266. 
Lubetch,  49. 
Ludvig    Rudolph  of   Rrunswick, 

324. 
Luitprand,  48. 
Lund,  10,  70,  111,  250,  804,  307,  322, 

328,  329,  337,  840;  battle  of,  254; 

peace  treaty  at,  256;  University 

of  (see  Universities). 
Lund  berg,  Gustavus,  428;  Theo- 

dor,  430. 
Lundquist,  C.  F.,  431. 
Luther,  Lutheran,  98, 140, 183, 184, 

186,  190,  204,  214,  312,  327,  368, 

435. 
Lutzen,  battle  of,  213-219;  battle- 
field of,  279,  281. 
Lybecker,  George,  283,  285. 
Lymphatic  ducts,  262. 


M^CENAS  of  Sweden,  260. 

Machiavelli,  121. 

Maelar,  Lake,  5,  10,  55,  71,  96, 107, 
112, 127,  156.  168. 

Magdeburg,  205-206. 

Magnetism,  324. 

Magnus  (Danish  princes):  M.  Nils- 
son,  71;  M.  Henricsson,  72-74. 

Magnus,  Bishop,  148. 

Magnus  (kings  of  Norway):  M. 
Barfod,  69;  M.  Lagaboete,  83. 

Magnus  (kings  of  Sweden):  M. 
Ladulas,  82-88,  89,  90;  M.  Erics- 
son, 84,  92-95,  97;  (princes  of 
Sweden):  Magnus  Birgersson, 
92;  M.  Vasa,  155,  167,  158,  163- 
164,  169. 

Magog,  263. 

Main,  River,  209. 

Malaspina,  183. 

Malebranche,  266. 

Malmstroem,  B.  E.,  38ft. 

Malmoe,  10,  411. 

Manheira.    See  Atland. 

Manderstroem,  Count,  393,  401, 
404. 

Marsk,  87,  102,  108,  249. 

Margaret,  missionary  to  the  Laps, 
104. 

Margaret  Fredkulla,  Princess,  69, 
71. 


Margaret  (queens  of  Sweden),  89; 

Valdemarsdotter,  96,  96,  98, 100- 

105, 120,  371;  Leiionhufvud,  155, 

166,  177,  178. 
Margaret  of  Valois,  162. 
Maria,  queen  of  Sweden,  189. 
Marie  Antoinette,  Queen,  867. 
Marie  Eleonore,  Queen,  284. 
Marlborough,  280. 
Mariefred,  118,  133. 
Mariestad,  188. 
Marnaas,  136. 
Masudi,  60. 

Matchless,  The,  165-16«. 
Martha,  Dame,  100. 
Matern,  J.  A.,  28a 
Massilia,  24. 
Mars,  31. 

"Master  Olf,"  427. 
Materialism,  412,  432. 
Mathematics,  270,  322. 
Mattias,  Bishop,  128. 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria,   198,  210l 

211. 
Mazarin,  220. 
Mazeppa,  283,  285,  286. 
Mayence,  209. 
Mechtild,  Danish  queen,  81. 
Mecklenburg,  95,  97,  168,  210,  228, 

244,  295,  357. 
Mediagval.     See  Middle  Ages. 
Medelpad,  6,  24,  303. 
Medical  science,  262,  331,  333,  424, 

425. 
Meibom,  240. 
Melanchthon,  204. 
Melen,  Berndt  von,  142,  148. 
Memel,  203. 
Menuet,  Peter,  232. 
Mendelssohn,  389. 
Meri,  47. 
Messenius,  John,  232;  Arnold  J., 

240;  Arnold,  the  Younger,  240. 
Metals,  15,  16,  116. 
Mexico,  18,  404. 
Middle  Ages,  45,  64-129,  134,  192, 

400. 
Michaeli,  Louise,  413. 
Midsummer,  Midnight,  sun,  7c 
Miklagard,  52. 
Mines,  miners,  mine  owners,  123, 

144,   152,  200-201,  805,  323,  336; 
Mining,  College  of,  304-305,   322, 

323. 
Ministers,    church,   176,  183,  258, 

287,    304,    327,    337,   396;    state 


INDEX 


453 


(secretary),  865,  401,  407,  416; 
of  foreign  affairs,  373,  393,  435; 
of  justice,  393,  397,  409,  435;  of 
finance,  393,  435,  436;  of  ec- 
clesiastics, 393,  409,  436;  of  war, 
408,  435;  of  civil  service,  409; 
of  marine,  435;  of  interior,  435. 

Missionaries,  53-55,  58,  104. 

Mi  tan,  302,  282. 

Moerner,  Otto,  367-368. 

Mohilev,  284. 

Molin,  Ambjoern,  289;  J.  P.,  412, 
430. 

Monitor,  387. 

Monrad,  D.  G.,  404. 

Montelius,  Oscar,  423. 

Mora,  in  Dalecarlia,  136-138,  140; 
Stone  of,  in  Upland,  92,  95. 

Moravia,  226,  228. 

Moraeus,  Maria  Elis,  332. 

Mons  Bengtsson.  See  Natt  och 
Dag. 

Moscow,  172,  188,  284,  288. 

Moss,  Convention  of,  372-373. 

Motzfeldt,  K.,  406. 

Muller,  J.  B.,  289. 

Munck,  Lady  Ebba,  415. 

Munich  School  of  Painters,  429. 

Muonio,  River,  363. 

Music,  263,  346,  380,  382,  388,  389- 
390,  412,413,431;  national  folk, 
431. 

Mutiny,  188. 

Mysticism,  98, 99, 161, 169, 321,  354, 
356. 

Mythology,  classical,  31,  265. 
Swedish  (see  Sweden). 

Nakskov,  246. 

Namur,  93. 

Narva,  174, 282;  battle  of,  274-277; 

river,  275. 
Napoleon  I.,  356,  357,  362,  367,  368, 

369-371. 
Napoleon  III.,  404,  406. 
Nassau,  415. 
Nathorst,  H.   O.,  423;    A.  C,  424 

note. 
Natt  och  Dag,  Mons    Bengtsson, 

109;    Nils    Bosson    (see   Sture); 

Ake    Hansson,    122    (see     also 

Sture). 
Nerigon,  25. 

Nerike,  5,  13,  39,  97,  116. 
Nerschinsk,  289. 


Nestor,  46-47,  49,  63. 

Netherlands,  98,  152,  189. 

Neva,  78,  93,  289. 

New  Church,  325. 

New  Rhymed  Chronicle.  See 
Charles  Chronicle. 

New  School,  380-381. 

Newton,  324. 

Nicolaus  of  Alba,  72. 

Nicholaus  II.  of  Russia,  418. 

Nils  Bosson  (Natt  och  Dag).  See 
Sture. 

Nils,  king  of  Denmark,  71. 

Nilsson,  Mons,  134;  Sven,  380; 
Christine,  413. 

Nimwegen,  peace  treaty  of,  254- 
255. 

Niord,  34. 

Nithard,  54. 

Nobel,  Alfred,  425-426. 

Nobility,  Nobles,  76,  86,  87,  88,  92, 
95,  96,  102,  105,  108, 110, 113, 115, 
117,  119,  120,  126,  127,  128,  144, 
148,  150,  151,  158,  166,  169,  173, 
174,  185,  186,  193,  199,  200,  231, 
233,  238,  239,  243,  250,  255,  256, 
258,  271,  302,  304,  310,  314,  349, 
350,  352,  357,  365,  367,  383,  384, 
385,  396,  397,  398,  416;  higher, 
200,  251,  256-257,  314;  lower, 
200,  251,  253,  256,  257,  314, 
speaker  of  (see  Landtmarskalk), 

Noerdlingen,  battle  of,  221,  223. 

Noeteborg,  282. 

Norcopensis.     See  Nordenhielm. 

Nordanskogs,  5. 

Nordberg,  G.,  288. 

Nordblom,  J.  E. 

Nordenflycht,  Hedvig  Charlotta, 
339 

Nordenhielm,  Andreas,  269,  270. 

Nordenskiold,  Baron,  424. 

Nordgren,  Ellen,  404,  406,  431. 

Nordraak,  405. 

Nordstroem,  Charles,  429. 

Norman,  Normandie,  48,  52. 

Norman,  Georg,  149;  F.  V.  L.,  390. 

Noren,  Adolph,  423. 

Norrby,  Soeren,  122,  139,  140,  143. 

Norrkoeping,  190,  320. 

Norrland,  5,  6,  7,  14,  24,  43,  107, 
138,  193,  266,  362. 

North,  the  Scandinavian,  16,  21, 
29,  35,  42,  43,  44,  52,  53,  54,  56,  59, 
60,  61,  94,  96, 101,  104,  114,  225, 
248,  263,  305,  830,  434,  438. 


454 


INDEX 


North  Pole,  434. 

North  Sea,  5,  10,  196,  198,  322,  375. 

North  Star,  Order  of  the,  818. 

Northeast  Passage,  424. 

Northern  language,  common,  99; 
oldest  form,  8,  22;  tribes,  28;  in- 
dustrial arts,  23;  literature,  86, 
88,41. 

Northmen,  45,  52,  53,  59. 

Norway,  Norwegians.  5,  6,  10,  18, 
21,  25,  83,  86,  38,  41,  43,  45,  52, 
55,  57,  58,  60,  61,  62,  63,  67,  68, 
69,  70,  75,  76,  79,  83,  89,  90,  91, 
92,  94,  95,  96,  100,  111,  142,  147, 
164,  166-167,  174,  247,  307,  308, 
811,  348.  857,  362,  366,  370,  371- 
374,  375,  386,  393-395,  402,  404, 
405,  418-421,  430;  governor-gen- 
eral question,  386,  393-395,  418- 
419;  constitution,  873-374,  893; 
cabinet,  373,  394-395,  402;  con- 
sular and  diplomatic  service, 
419,  420,  437;  defence,  419;  flag, 
886,  419;  culture,  405;  govern- 
ment, 873;  king,  373-374;  Minis- 
ster  of  State,  419;  railways,  421; 
royal  title,  386;  Storthing,  373, 
379,  386,  393-394,  406,  419,  420, 
425-426;  viceroy,  393. 

Novgorod,  47,  52,  62,  188,  190. 

Nuremberg,  211-212,  225. 

Nurmanni,  47. 

Nykoeping,  82,  84,  172,  190,  SJ39, 
302;  Feast  of,  90;  Restitution  of, 
102. 

Nyslott,  316. 

Nystroem,  Alfred,  480. 


Oder,  River,  21,  27,  224,  279. 
Odin,  31-82,  34,  35,  37. 
CEdman,  A.,  431. 
(Eland,  island  of,  5,  21, 22,  111,  254; 

naval  battles  of,   165-166,  167- 

168,  350. 
CErbyhus,  171. 

(Erebro,  109, 146,  150, 174, 368,  387o 
(Esel,  island  of,  164,  227. 
CEstberg,  Caroline,  431. 
CEsterlind,  A.,  429. 
Ohio,  7. 

Ohthere.     See  Ottar. 
Olaf  (Norwegian  kings)  Tryggvas- 

8on,   57-58;    Haraldsson,  61-62, 

67;  Hakonsson,  100. 


Olai,  Ericas,  114,  117. 

Olaus,   Petri  (Master  Olof).    See 

Petri. 
Oldenburg,  866;   counts   of,    149, 

367. 
Old  Chronicle.    See  Eric's  Chron- 
icle. 
Old  Danish,  8,  22,  99. 
Old  English,  237,  342. 
Old  High  German,  342. 
Old  Icelandic.    See  Old  Norse. 
Old  Norse  language,  8,  22,  99,  341, 

342;    literature,     32,   232,    270; 

mythology,  265. 
Old  Swedish  language,  8,  9,  22, 24, 

48,  49,  99,  342;   literature,  8,  9, 

66-67,  80,  98,  114, 121;  laws,  48, 

66-67,  380,  39L 
Oleg,  48,  49,  51. 
Olga,  48,  51. 

Oliva,  peace  treaty  of,  250. 
Oligarchy,  809. 
Olof  (Swedish  kings),  40-41,  42,  64, 

55;     Skoetkonung,     52,     57-62; 

Naeskonung,  69,  70. 
Olsson,  Lars,  138. 
Olustra,  battle  of,  78. 
Opposition,  Conservative,  883,  384; 

Liberal,  376-878,   379,   880,  382, 

383,  884.    See  also  Intelligence 

Party. 
Orange,  259,  392. 
Oravais,  battle  of,  358,  360-362. 
Ordeals,  82. 
Orientalists,  333,  340. 
Ornaes,  134. 
Orosius,  43. 

Oscar  Fredericsborg,  418. 
Oscar  (kings  of  Sweden):  I.  882- 

390,  391,  411;  IL  411,  414-488. 
Oscar,  Prince.    See  Bernadotte. 
Oslo,  92. 
Ottar,  37-38. 
Otto,  Bishop,  128. 
Oxenstierna,  Joens  Bengtsson,  112- 

113;  Axel,  199,  203,  204,  220-221, 

222,  ,226,  229,  230,  283,  234,  239, 

242,   312,   375,  421;    John,   229; 

Bengt,  259,   271;  John  Gabriel, 

845;  Oxford,  840. 


Pal^oltthio  Civilization,  12. 
Palatinate-Zweibrucken,  189,  239, 
290. 


INDEX 


455 


Pappenheim,  203,  207-209,  213, 
214,  217-218. 

Paris,  118,  305,  331,  340,  368,  371; 
expositions,  413,  421,  429;  peace 
treaties,  362-363,  369,  388;  Uni- 
versity, 118,  340. 

Parliament,  Parliamentary  Re- 
form, 108,  111,  376,  379,  384-385, 
396-401. 

Passage-graves,  13. 

Patriotism,  104, 114,  120,  130,  131, 
200,  201,  235,  244,  247,  248,  250, 
258,  309,  352,  358,  367,  398,  434. 

Patkul,  J.  R.,  312. 

Pau,  368. 

Pauli,  Emerentia,  196-197;  George, 
429;  Hanna  (Hirsch-P.),  429. 

Peasant.   See  Yeoman. 

Peasant  High  Schools,  423. 

Peasant-king,  188. 

Peene,  River,  312. 

Peipus,  Lake,  199,  282. 

Pentinger,  Konrad,  149. 

Peringskiold,  John,  265. 

Pernau,  201,  292. 

Person,  Andrew,  133-134;  Arendt, 
134-135;  Goeran,  162,  170. 

Peter  Frisk,  299. 

Peter's  Pence,  72. 

Peterson,  Adrian,  431. 

Peter  the  Great,  272-273,  277,  282, 
283,  284,  285,  287,  288,  289,  296, 
306,  307,  311,  316. 

Petri,  Olaus  (Master  Olof),  86, 114, 
128,  141,  150;  Laurentius,  141, 
150,  175,  177,  183;  Laurentius  P. 
Gothus,  175. 

Peru,  336. 

Philadelphia  Exposition,  421. 

Philip,  king,  70;  Folkung,  81; 
Duke  (see  Charles,  Princes  of 
Sweden). 

Philipstad,  188. 

Philology,  67,  237,  265,  266,  320, 
339-342,  380,  388,  423. 

Philosophy,  240-241,  321,  327,  340, 
411^12,  423. 

Phosphoristic  School,  380-381. 

Physical  science,  322,  324-325,  333, 
423,  425. 

Physiology,  325. 

Piccolomini,  General,  221,  225. 

Pillau,  203. 

Piper,  Charles,  271,  286,  287,  288, 
292;  Louise  Sophie,  366-367. 

Pitea,  411. 

XX 


Plague,  94,  124,  176,  290,  822. 

Plato,  264. 

Platen,  Baltzar  B.  von,  365,  871, 

375. 
Pliny,  the  Elder,  25. 
Poland,  Polish,  98,  143,  163,  164, 

174,  175,  182,  183,  184,  185,  187, 

199,  202,  222,  243-245,  247,  250, 

252,  273,  278-279,  281,  282,  283, 

284,  290,  292,  294,  295,  297,  313, 

401. 
Polar  Circle,  7,  8;  Sea,  93. 
Polhammar.     See  Polhera. 
Polhem,  Christopher,  267, 302,  304- 

306,  322,  326,  334,  875,  424;  Eme- 
rentia, 326. 
Poliane,  49. 
Polotsk,  47. 
Pomerania,  5,  7,  205,  224,  229,  232, 

245,  255,  258,  294-295,  299,  303, 

312,  319,  336,  357,  363,  871. 
Pomponius  Mela,  25. 
Ponte  Corvo,  368. 
Pope,  69, 77,  78,  94,  97-98, 117,  121, 

124,  126. 144 
Porosalmie,  battle  of,  350. 
Porphyrogenitus.     See    Constau- 

tine  P. 
Portugal,  45. 

Posse,  Knut,  116,  118;  Arvid,  407. 
Potatoes,  836. 
Powers,  Continental,  187,  248,  250, 

252,  319,  320,  344,  846,  372,  374, 

378,  403,  418. 
Prague,  117,  210,  222,  228,  236, 258. 
Press,  231,  365,  876-377,  883,  384, 

396,  397,  408,  404,  407,  428;  law, 

434-435. 
Pretenders,  55-56,  74,  75,  78,  147, 

187-188. 
Prisons,  382. 
Priestley,  325. 
Priests,  98,  144. 
Priraas  of  Sweden,  70. 
Printz,  John,  232. 
Prokopios,  28,  31. 
Propeller,  387. 

Prose  Chronicle.    See  Chronicle. 
Protective  system,  406,  416;  pro- 

tectionistic  party,  416. 
Protestantism,    175,    182-184,  189, 

192,  202,  204,  221,  279,  281-282, 

325. 
Province,   Provincial,  5-6,  64-65, 

66,  86,  89,  93,  105,  149,  249;  lawg 

(see  Sweden). 
20 


456 


INDEX 


Prussia,  172,  202,  203,  222,  228, 244, 

296,  299,  311,  345,  349,  352,  870, 

385-386,  403. 
Pruth,  River,  294. 
Pskof,  198. 
Ptolemy,  27. 
Pufendorflf,  S.,  287. 
Puke,  Eric  Kettilsson  (see  Kettils- 

son);  Eric  (Nilsson),  107,  110. 
Pulkkila,  battle  of,  358. 
Pultowa,  battle  of,  285-286,  289, 

290,  291,  292,  294,  308. 
Pyk,  Louise,  431. 
Pyteas,  24. 


Quaternary  period,  13. 
Qvidinge,  366. 


ILEFSN-ffiS,  133. 

Ra^nar,  Swedish  king,  41-42;  E. 

Lodbrok,  sea-king,  41-42. 
Ragavald,  jarl,  58,  61-62,  67;  king, 

70-71;  prince,  70. 
Railways.    See  Sweden, 
Ram  berg,  226. 
Rankhytta,  133. 

Rantzau,  Daniel,  168;  George,  291. 
Rappe,  A.  E.,  435. 
Raseborg,  118,  129. 
Rashutt,  327. 
Ratan,  363. 

Ratenau,  battle  of,  252. 
Ravius,  240. 
Realism,  406,  426-427. 
Reform  Banquet,  384. 
Reform,  Parliamentary.    See  Par- 
liament. 
Reformation,  Reformers,  98,  140- 

146,  150,  153,  339;  language,  9. 
Reformed  Church,  812. 
Regensburg,  224. 
RehnsMold,  C.  G.,  284, 285-286, 287, 

288. 
Renaissance,  153, 157, 261;  Swedish 

Castle,  173,  481. 
Renat,  J.  G.,  288. 
Renata  of  Lothringia,  162, 169. 
Restitution.    See  Crown  Lands. 
Rettvik,  186. 

Reuterholm,  G.  A.,  853-856. 
Eeval,  162, 172,  174,  292. 
Revolts,  76,  78,  81,  84, 107-108, 121, 

141-148,  146-151,  288,  298,   816- 


817,  844,  869;  of  Bells,  148-149, 
155. 

Revolution,  French,  351,  868,  884, 
428;  Swedish,  138,  143,  146,  344, 
345,  349-352,  362,  879. 

Rheims,  54. 

Ribbing,  P.,  802,  810,  814. 

Richelieu,  220,  224. 

Riddarholm's  Church,  87,  90,  96, 
225,  367,  415. 

Riddarhus,  The,  166,  200,  256,  268, 
398. 

Ridderstad,  C.  F.,  389. 

Riga,  82,  187,  202,  291-292. 

Rikissa,  princess,  87;  queen,  71; 
Birgersdotter,  79. 

Riksdag,  88,  108,  115,  117,  124,  140, 
142,  143,  150,  151,  161,  169,  170, 
175,  183-184,  200,  201,  202,  222, 
238,  240,  243,  248,  249,  250,  254, 
256,  257,  258,  271,  293,  298,  310, 
314,  315,  316,  817,  818,  319,  335, 
336,  388,  840,  844,  845,  348,  349- 
850,  355,  356-357,  365,  368,  869, 
876,  378,  883,  384,  387,  394-395, 
896^01,  403,  406,  407-411,  416- 
418,  420,  438,  485;  regulations  of 
the,  434 

Riksdrotset.     See  Drotsete. 

Riksmarsk.     See  Marsk. 

Rimbert,  Archbishop,  52,  65. 

Ring  ("Sigurd  Ring'*),  41,  51. 

Riswick,  peace  treaty  of,  259. 

Ritual  and  hymn-book,  175, 188, 
260,  355. 

Rococo,  858. 

Rock-carvings,  17,  18. 

Roeskilde,  peace  treaties  of,  91, 
247. 

Rolf  Krake,  88. 

Romanticism  (Neo-),  846,  380-881, 
388-389,  405,  427. 

Rome,  Roman,  20,  21,  26,  27,  28, 
72,  74,  97,  125,  141,  144,  175,  204, 
263,  265. 

Rosen,  von,  282  note;  George  von, 
412,  429. 

Rosenblad,  M.,  874. 

Roslagen,  4a-49. 

Roslin,  Alex.,  347,  428. 

Rosstjenst.    See  Russtienst. 

Rostock,  121,  147,  165. 

Rostof ,  47. 

Roth  man.  Dr.,  827-328. 

Royal  offices,  87;  sanctity,  77,  85; 
title,  84. 


INDEX 


457 


Rud,  Otto,  128. 

Ruden,  Island  of,  305. 

Rudenschiold,  Madelaine,  354. 

Rudbeck,  Olof,  the  Elder,  261-365; 
Olof,  the  Younger,  380. 

Rudbeckius,  J.,  262. 

Rudolph,  emperor,  172. 

Rugen,  Island,  329,  294,  871. 

Ruhr,  River,  236. 

Runeberg,  J.  L.,  364,  388. 

Runes,  8,  31-33,  340. 

Runius,  233. 

Runn,  Lake,  134. 

Ruotsi,  48. 

Rurik,  47-49,  51,  52,  187. 

Rus,  RCls,  47,  50,  105. 

Russia,  Russians,  6,  12,  22,  26,  48, 
46-52,  62,  68,  67, 68,  69, 78, 81,  88, 
94,  105,  113,  118,  119,  123,  143, 
153,  153,  163,  171,  173,  174,  176, 
184,  187,  188,  190,  198,  199,  303, 
244,  250,  272,  373,  374^377,  278, 
280,  282-287,  391-393,  394,  395, 
806,  311,  315,  316,  317,  345,  348- 
349,  350-351,  353,  357-363,  369, 
370,  874,  377,  378,  387-388,  394, 
401,  418,  436;  captivity,  387-389; 
lan^-uage,  8;  names,  48. 

Russtienst,  Rusttjenst,  86, 143, 163, 
174,  188. 

Rydberg,  Victor,  413,  433. 

Rydboholm,  130. 

Rydelius,  Andrew,  337-338. 

Ryssby,  193. 


S 


Sachsen  (Saxony)-Lauenburg,  155, 

316. 
Saef Strom,  335. 
Saetherbey,  H.,  389. 
Saetra,  134. 
St.  Gallen,  363. 
St.  Olaf,  Order  of,  386. 
St.  Peter  of  Rome,  340. 
St.  Petersburg,  88,  383,  383,  385, 

389,  348,  355. 
St.  Salvator,  Order  of,  98. 
Sala,  153. 
Salestad,  176. 
Salon,  French,  438,  439. 
Salmson,  H.,  429. 
Salmasius,  336,  340. 
Salvius,  A.,  339. 
San,  River,  344. 
Sandels,  J.  A.,  358,  360. 


Saxo,  51,  67. 

Saxons,  Saxonland,  Saxony,  29, 88^ 
40,  306-308,  211,  313,  333,  238, 
224,  228,  272,  273,  277,  279-283, 
292,  295,  299,  322,  415. 

Scandia,  25. 

Scandinavia,  Scandinavian,  14,  16, 
24,  25,  28,  100,  101,  124,  166,  255, 
317,  423,  437;  languages,  9,  99, 
166;  peninsula,  5,  12,  25,  27,  93, 
312,  325,  371,  421;  policy,  347, 
403-406,415,437-438;  religion,  31. 

Scandinavism,  385-386. 

Scania,  5,  6,  10,  13,  13,  14,  18,  31, 
35,  40,  43,  46,  84,  91,  93,  95,  97, 
105,  111,  167,  195,  336,  347,  349, 
254,  390-391,  307,  335,  336,  344, 
357,  363,  366,  369,  386. 

Scandza,  30,  44. 

Scheele,  C.  W.,  346. 

Schefferns,  340. 

Schleswig,  104,  113,  136,  345,  385, 
386,  403,  404,  405. 

Schluesselburg,  383. 

Schlyter,  K.  J.,  380. 

Schoenstroem,  P.,  388. 

Scholander,  E.  W.,  431. 

Schools,  school  laws,  117, 146, 175, 
393,  433. 

Schueck,  H.,  438. 

Schuisky,  Vassili,  187-188. 

Schwartz,  Sophie,  389. 

Schwedenstein,  281. 

Schwerin,  von  W.,  360-361;  F.  B., 
377. 

Scotland,  308,  405. 

Scylflngas.     See  Skilfings. 

Secret  Committee,  314,  315,  316. 

Seeland,  346-347,  391,  363. 

Sehlstedt,  Elias,  389. 

Semiramis  of  the  North,  104. 

Separator,  435. 

Seraphim,  Order  of  the,  318. 

Seven  Years'  War,  of  the  North, 
164-168;  Continental,  319. 

Siberia,  387-389. 

Sigfrid,  St.,  58. 

Sigismund  of  Sweden  and  Poland, 
174,  183-186,  187,  188,  303. 

Signe,  36. 

Signjotr.     See  Sineus. 

Sigrid  Storrada,  57. 

Sigtuna,  35,  63,  68,  71,  75. 

Sigurd,  King,  41. 

Sigurd  Jorsalafare,  70. 

Siikajoki,  battle  of,  858-359. 


458 


INDEX 


Silesia,  903,  322,  225,  226,  379,  281- 
282 

Siljan,  Lake,  186. 

8imon.     See  Gauzbert  and  Stenfi. 

Sineus,  47,  48. 

Sioegren,  Otto,  890,  481. 

Skara,  59,  68,  84,  128, 148,  831. 

Skee  Finns,  28. 

Skenninge  Conference,  78;  meet- 
ing, 86. 

Skerry  fleet,  850,  851. 

Skialf,  86. 

Skiel  (Kiel),  Bay  of,  226. 

Skilfings,  88,  85,  87,  89, 40. 

Skjoeldebrand,  A.  F.,  874. 

Skokloster,  351. 

Skytte,  Johan,  198,  282. 

Slavs,  28,  47-50,  54. 

Sloane,  Hans,  831. 

Smaland,  5,  14,  29,  70,  72,  84,  111, 
126,  183,  150,  166,  195,  215,  291, 
827,  829. 

Smith,  S.,  481. 

Smolensk,  49,  188,  384. 

Snaphaner,  226. 

Snoilsky,  413,  427. 

Snorre  Sturleson,  83,  84, 85,  40, 41, 
52,  265,  349. 

Socialism,  433. 

Scederman,  August,  481. 

Soedermanland,  5,  9,  13,  28,  89,  58, 
107,  183,  174. 

Soederkoeping,  116,  183. 

Sohlman,  Aug.,  403. 

Soop,  Eric,  303. 

Sophia  (queens  of  Sweden),  81;  416. 

Sophie  Magdalene,  queen  of  Swe- 
den, 343. 

Sound,  the,  10,  93,  227;  naval  bat- 
tle of,  248. 

South  Company,  282. 

Spain,  Spanish,  45,  97,  209,  221, 
352,  378. 

Sparre,  P.  G.,  889. 

Sparrsaetra,  battle  of,  78. 

Spectator,  838. 

Spitzbergen,  424. 

Sprengtporten,  J.  M.,  344,  850l 

Squire,  106,  131,  200. 

Stade,  295. 

Stadsfullmaegtige,  395. 

Staeket,  124,  125,  131. 

Stagnelius,  E.  J.,  380-881. 

Stanislav  of  Poland,  279,  281,  390, 
395,  313. 

Starbaeck,  George,  389. 


Steam  hose,  887. 
Stedingk,  C.  von,  850,  867. 

Stefan,  74. 

Stegeborg,  189,  186. 

Stenbock  (see  Catherine,  queens 
of  Sweden),  Brita,  166;  Gus- 
tavus.  Baron,  156, 162, 181;  Olof, 
171;  Eric,  176-182,  296;  Mag- 
dalen (see  Sture);  Cecilia,  178- 
180;  Beatrix,  180;  Anne,  181; 
Gustavus,  182;  Gustavus  Otto, 
250;  Magnus,  Count,  182,  277, 
284,  290,  291,  294-296. 

Stenfi  (Stephan),  58. 

Stenhammar,  W.,  890. 

Stenkil,  67-68,  70. 

Stensoe,  132. 

Steplian  of  Poland,  174. 

Stellin,  312. 

Steuchius,  Archbishop,  840. 

Stiklastad,  battle  of,  62. 

Stiernhielm,  Georg,  233,  235,  387. 

Stiernhoek,  233. 

Stobeus,  Chilian,  889. 

Stockholm,  10,  36, 74,  75,  82,  84,  87, 
90,  92,  95,  96,  100,  101, 107,  108, 
109,  113,  116,  119,  121,  124,  125, 
126,  127,  130,  133,  139,  140,  141, 
148,  150,  158,  165,  169,  173,  180, 
186,  190,  193,  199,  231-232,  273, 
313,  317,  320,  821,  334,  338,  344, 
362,  366,  373,  377,  384,  891,  397, 
405,  418,  432;  Royal  Palace,  803; 
City  University  (see  Universi- 
ties); Exchange,  837;  Posten, 
377;  Royal  Theatre,  846, 352,  413, 
431. 

Stolarm,  Arvid,  185. 

Stolbova,  peace  treaty  of,  198. 

Stolhandske,  Torsten,  216-317,  318. 

Stone  Age,  11-16;  cists,  18. 

Stongebro,  battle  of,  185. 

Strahlenberg,  J.  von,  388. 

Strandberg,  C.  W.  A.,  389. 

Stralsund,  siege  of,  399-300. 

Strengnses,  71,  114,  128,  140. 

Strindberg,  August,  426-427,428, 
431;  Nils,  424. 

Strcemstad,  307,  822. 

Strole,  Olof,  197. 

Stromberg,  Nils,  291-293. 

Stuhm,  battle  of,  303-303. 

Sturzen-Becker,  O.  P.,  389. 

Suchtelen,  von,  359. 

Succession,  Royal,  150,  161,  190, 
310;  law  of,  434. 


INDEX 


459 


Stuart,  Mary,  103;  Charles 
MagQus,  270,  277. 

Sture,  130,  140,  146,  181,  182;  orig- 
inal line:  Sten  Sture,  the  El- 
der, 113,  114-120,  121,  123,  130- 
131;  Natt  och  Dag  branch:  Nils 
Bosson,  108-109,  116,  118,  120, 
123;  Svante  Nilsson,  118-123, 
141;  Sten  Sture,  the  Younger, 
123-129,  131,  142;  Nils  Stensson, 
147;  Svante  Stensson,  Count, 
149,  151,  155,  156,  162,  168,  169- 
170,  177;  Nils  Svantesson,  168, 
169;  Eric,  170;  Martha  (see 
Leijonhufvud);  Sigrid,  176-182; 
Magdalen,  176-182,  296;  Anne, 
177;  Margaret,  177,  179;  Chris- 
tine,  177. 

Sture  Chronicles,  114. 

Styrbicern  Starke,  55-56. 

Subsidies,  252,  316,  319. 

Sud,  49. 

Suevian  Sea,  26. 

Suiones,  26. 

Sundberg,  Archbishop,  407. 

Sunnanskogs,  5. 

Sunnanvaeder,  Peder,  141-143,  147. 

Suomi,  437. 

Supreme  Court.    See  Sweden, 

*'Surgeon's  Stories,"  413. 

Svaerdsbro,  179. 

Svaerdsjoe,  135. 

Svartsjoe,  155,  173. 

Sveaborg,  fortress  of,  317,  359-360. 

Svealand,  5,  14,  19,  24,  27,  58,  68, 
69,  83,  185. 

"Svecia,"  265-266. 

Svedberg,  Jesper,  821. 

Svedbom,  431. 

Sveijder,  35. 

Svein,  Norwegian  jarl,  57-58. 

Sven.     See  Blot-Sven. 

Svend  (Danish  kings):  Tjufvus- 
kaegg,  57;  Estridsen,  63;  Grade, 
72. 

Svendborg,  246. 

Svensksund,  naval  battles  of,  360- 
351. 

Sverdrup,  J.,  406. 

Sverker,  the  Old,  71-73,  75;  the 
Younger,  74,  75-77. 

Sviar,  27,  35,  47,  64. 

Sviatoslaf,  51. 

Svinesund,  307,  372. 

Svithiod,  84,  36,  37,  38,  39,  40,  41. 

Svolder,  battle  of,  57-58. 


Swabia,  29,  318. 

Sweden,  5,  11,  31,  26,  27,  81,  34, 

42,  58,  64,  75,  90,  105,  126,  188, 
192,  214,  221,  222,  223,  229-230, 
250,  265,  272,  289,  291,  296,  298, 
300,  309,  320-321,  363-364,  374, 
403, 418, 432-434;  administration 
(see  Government);  agriculture, 
15,  117,  152,  260,  306,  317,  423; 
alcohol  industry,  387;  archi- 
tects (see  Architecture);  army, 
152,  186,  201-202,  203,  231,  258- 

259,  283,  290,  296,  307,  408-410, 
415-418;    art,  261,  303,  347,  382, 

391,  412,  421,  428-431;  botanists 
(see  Botany);  broadcloth,  335, 
336,  337;  budget,    422;    cabinet, 

365,  374,  376,  378,  382,  383,  391- 

392,  394-395,  399-400,  402,  404, 
435,  436;  canals  (see  Gotha 
Canal);  civilization  (see  Cultural 
Development);  climate,  7;  col- 
onies, 232;  commerce,  81-82,  85, 
105,  116,  152,  176,  188,  198,  200, 

260,  288,  302,  376,  387,  406,  407, 
414,  421,  422;  communications, 
374,  387,  406,  421;  communities, 
39,  42,  64,  105,  896,  432;  com- 
posers (see  Music);  constitution, 
64,  65,  105,  255-258,  268,  292-293, 
802,  310,  314,  318,   344,   349-350, 

366,  378,  400,  434;  court,  87,  146, 
154,  189,  240,  255,  318,  319,  338, 
339;  court  party,  818-320,  338; 
criminal  code,  395;  crown,  144, 
149,  174^175,  201,  239,  255  (see 
also  Crown  lands,  restitution 
of);  cultural  development,  14, 
18,  23,  30-31,  59-61,  68,  71-72, 
98-99,  105,  114,  117-118,  141-142, 
173,  188,  201  232-233,  261-267, 
302-306,  313,  320,  321-341,  345- 
347,   353,    380-381,  382,  388-390, 

393,  405,  408,  411-413,  422-433; 
dairy  industry,  152,  425;  defence, 
254,  260,  293,  374,  375,  408,  417- 
418;  departments,  state,  199, 230, 
298,  314,  378,  421,  435  (see  also 
Cabinet  and  Ministers);  dialect 
research,  840,  841;  electric  tele- 
graph, 387,  422;  emblem,  164, 
197;  engineers,  424-426;  estates 
(see  Estates);  exports  and  im- 
ports, 422;  finance,  94,  187,  239, 
243,  301-302,  306,  311,  313,  315, 
819,  374,  407,  408,  422;  forests, 


460 


INDEX 


7,  18;  fundamental  laws,  484- 
485;  geographical  discoveries, 
288,  424;  geology,  8,  12,  825; 
government,  64.  65,  74,  85,  87, 
88, 91, 92, 93,  96, 101-104, 108, 114, 
115,  123,  149-150,  152-153,  161- 
162,  174,  178,  188,  189,  190,  203, 
230,  233,  249-252,  253,  256-257, 
258,  259-260,  271,  292-293,  800- 
802,  310-311,  312,  813,  315,  816, 
817,  319,  320,  345,  854-355,  874, 
878,  383-384,  390,  891,  895-401, 
403,  404,  407,  409,  410-411,  416, 
418,  419,  435;  graves,  13,  14,  16, 
17,  19,  28,  27;  historians  (see 
History);  industries,  802,  806, 
817,  319,  834-337,  883,  887,  893, 
407,  421;  inland  seas,  805,  825; 
inventors,  804,  321,  822,  425-426; 
kings,  26,  81,  40,  41,  42,  64-65, 
67,  84,  85,  87,  92,  96,  99,  115,  125, 
145,  150,  158,  189,  190,  191,  201, 
242,  249,  253,  263,  268,  800,  808, 
843,  882-883,  891,  401,  411,  414, 
415,  434-435;  land-tax,  408,  410, 
416;  language,  8,  9,  15,  47-48, 
99,  153,  237,  238,  880,  840,  346- 
347,  390;  legislation,  82,  85-86, 
89,  93,  105,  110,  814,  815,  883, 
395-401,  416-418;  literature,  66- 
67.  80,  89,  98,  99,  121,  155,  238, 
237,  261,  263,  337-839,  845-847, 
380-382,  883-389,  405,  412-413, 
414,  426-428;  loanwords,  8,  47; 
manufactures,  806,  817,  835-336; 
maritime  code,  895;  metal  en- 
graving (see  Art);  migrations, 
84;  military  districts  and  divi- 
sions, 417-418;  militia,  857,  865, 
369,  409,  410, 416,  417;  mining  in- 
dustry, 82, 116,  152, 188,  201,  230- 
232,  260,  336;  municipal  govern- 
ment, 395-396;  mythology,  81- 
82, 53;  national  anthem,  434;  na- 
tional character  and  tempera- 
ment, 9,  10,  98,  354,  389-890, 405, 
433-434;  naturalists  (see  Sci- 
ence); navigation,  407,  422; 
navy,  94,  149,  168,  226-227,  231, 
253, 258-259, 416, 418;  one  realm, 
89,  42,  43,  64-65,  105;  painters 
jfeee  Art);  philologists  (see 
Philology);  philosophers  (see 
Philosophy);  political  grandeur, 
191. 192-309;  population,  5,  8, 16, 
»4, 176, 198;  possessions,  253,  272, 


292,  293,  299,  813  (see  also  Ter- 
ritory, Finland,  and  Baltic 
Dominion  and  Provinces);  postal 
service,  281,  421;  proper  names, 
82,  47,  48;  provincial  laws,  8,  66- 
67,  70,  89,  98,  880, 892;  railways, 
887,  406,  421;  regent,  68,  79,  88, 
91,  108,  109,  118,  115,  120,  122, 
124,  126,  140,  184,  353-356,  362- 
864,  891,  892-898;  scenery,  6,  98, 
830,  891;  Riksdag  (see  Riksdag); 
seal  of  state,  164;  science,  9,  2^, 
240,  261,  265,  288,  302,  804-306, 
821,  824-825,  332,  839,  340,346, 
880,  408,  414,  421,  426;  sculptors 
(see  Art);  sects,  432;  singers,  song 
(see  Music);  sloyd,  287;  state, 
8,  64-65,  151,  192,  199,  230;  state 
law,  67,  98,  105,  110,  815;  state 
treasurer,  189,  250;  statesmen, 
82,  87,  89,  146, 192,  199,  204,  220, 
251,  812,  815-316,  817,  368,  892- 
893,  487;  suffrage,  896,  899,  488; 
supreme  court,  162, 174, 199,  200, 
280,  850;  taxes,  taxation,  76.  88, 
103,  107,  201,  283,  238,  240,  279, 
290,  298,  814,  817,  887,  896,  408, 
410;  telephone  system,  422; 
territory,  6,  93,  104,  434;  towns, 
10,  75,  82,  85, 116,  152,  176,  188, 
811,  895,  897,  899;  town  laws, 
116;  tribes,  66,  105. 

Swedenborg,  E.,  321-327,  382,  847. 

•'Swedish  Fates  and  Adventures,** 
427. 

Swinhufvud.  See  Barbro  Stigs- 
dotter. 

Sword,  Order  of  the,  818. 

Systema  Naturse,  330,  883. 


Tacitus,  26,  27,  80,  434. 

Tartars,  285. 

Taube,  Mathilde.    See  Grabow. 

Tavastehus,  77,  858. 

Tavasti,  Tavastland,  77,  78,  88. 

Tchudi,  47. 

Te  Deum,  277. 

Tegn6r,  Esaias,  853,  868,  381-382, 

389;  Esaias,  Junior,  423. 
Telegraph.     See  Sweden. 
Temperance  movement,  887. 
Terna,  133. 
Tessin,    Nicodemus,  Senior,  802- 

803;    Nicodemus,    Junior,   802- 


INDEX 


461 


804,  317,  430;  Charles  Gustavus, 
317,  818,  333,  836,  339,  340. 

Teuffel,  General,  207. 

Teutons,  Teutonic,  8,  21,  22,  25,  26, 
28,  44;  ancestors,  15;  languages, 
8, 238, 342;  communities,  396, 432; 
migrationss,  20,  23,  44;  my- 
thology, 30;  origin,  30,  265;  sea, 
25;  state,  64-65;  traditions,  29- 
30;  tribes,  30,  43. 

Thegerstrom,  Robert,  430. 

Themptander,  O.  R.,  416. 

Theology,  340-341. 

Theophilus,  Emperor,  48. 

Theosophy,  325,  412. 

Thermometer,Centigrade,  321, 333. 
See  Celsius. 

Thing  (Assembly),  55,  56,  58,  61, 
65,  72,  82,  86. 

Thiodulf  of  Hvin,  33,  35,  41. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  193,  203-229, 
23i;  236,  261,  281,  313,  434. 

Thomas,  Bishop,  114, 121. 

Thomasius,  266. 

Thor,  30-31. 

Thorild,  T.,  346,  355. 

Thorn,  172. 

Thorvald,  Hialte,  56. 

Thraldom,  83,  93,  137,  309. 

Thule,  24,  25,  28,  29. 

Thunberg,  D.,  875. 

Tidemand,  405. 

Tilly,  203,  206-209,  210-311. 

Timutarsz,  297,  298. 

Tiundaland,  39,  62. 

Tiveden,  83,  127. 

Tobacco,  336. 

Tobolsk,  287. 

Toennig,  fortress  of,  295-396. 

**Tcernroseus  bok,"  389. 

Toll,  J.  C,  344,  356,  357. 

Tomte  Mats,  137. 

Topelius,  Z.,  412-418. 

Tordenskiold,  Peter,  307,  311, 

Toresson.     See  Ahlstroemer. 

Torgau,  retreat  from,  224. 

Torgny,  62. 

Tormentor  of  Denmark,  133. 

Torne,  River,  363. 

Torpa,  156,  181. 

Torsslov,  O.  U.,  890. 

Torstensson,   Lennart,    238, 
329,  239,  245,  248. 

Tott,  Eric  Axelson,  113,  117;  Ivar 
Axelson,  113,  117;  Ingeborg, 
118;  Ake,  173;  Clas,  175. 


Traventhal,  peace  treaty  of,  274* 

Tre  Rosor,  282  note;  Ture  Joensson, 
146,  148,  149,  156;  John  Tures. 
son,  149,  156,  158;  Gustavug 
Johnsson,  Count,  156,  162. 

Trolle,  Eric,  123,  134;  Gustavus, 
Archbishop,  124-135,  127-128, 
129,  139,  142,  148. 

Troll  hetta,  waterfalls  of,  806,  875k 

Tromp,  Admiral,  253. 

Truvor,  47,  48. 

Tryggve.    See  Truvor. 

Truso,  43. 

Turgot,  59. 

Turkey,  Turks,  283,  287,  298,  294 
296-298,  299,  303,  805,  888. 

Tver,  battle  of,  188. 

Tyr,  30. 

Tyrol,  6. 

U 

Ube,  River,  206. 

Ukraine,  285,  286,  292. 

Uleoborg,  358. 

Ulf,  jarls,  74;  78,  79. 

Ulf  Gudmundsson,  97. 

Ulfhild,  71. 

Ulfsson,  Jacob,  117,  124,  133. 

Ulrica  Eleonore,  queens  of  Swe» 
den,  255,  268,  274;  269,  289,  298, 
309,310,311,312,313,316. 

Ulricsdal,  891. 

Union,  Act  of,  4,  92,  93,  94,  101- 
102,  104,  114,  120,  129,  151,  166- 
167,  317,  872-374,  393,  395,  420; 
nature  of  the,  419-421,  437;  re- 
vision of  the,  386,  394-395,  406, 
421. 

Union  government,  420,  438;  de- 
fence, 420,  438;  parliament,  420, 
438. 

Unionism,  Unionist  party,  110, 
111,  114,  120,  121,  122,  123,  130, 
393-395,  415-416. 

Unitarianism,  325,  412. 

United  States,  486,  487-438  (see 
also  America);  President  of,  434. 

Universities,  117.  131, 153, 183, 189, 
230,  235,  250,  304,  322,  827,  329, 
339,  340-341,  356,  380,  885,  890, 
405,  411,  413,  422-428. 

Unne,  55. 

Upland,  5,  10,  23,  35,  89,  48,  78,  78, 
89,  90,  97,  105,  107, 110,  134,  139, 
185,  391. 

Uppstroem,  A.,  137  note. 

Upsala,  10,  38,  85,  37,  88,  89,  42, 


463 


INDEX 


51,  68,  71,  74,  107,  120,  131,  134, 
139,  142,  143,  147,  153,  157,  161, 
175,  183,  201,  235,  240,  262,  264, 
304,  822,  323,  829,  330,  331-332, 
340,  356,  880,  413;  cathedral,  82, 
112;  meeting^,  183;  University 
(see  Universities);  University 
Botanical  Garden,  829,  362;  Li- 
brary, 201,  235;  Observatory, 
333;  tenaple,  59,  60,  68,  71. 

Uranus,  824. 

Usedom,  island  of,  205.  229,  812. 

Utilitarianism,  887,  432. 

Utmeland,  137. 

"Utopia  Realized,"  427. 


Vadstena,  98-99,  -104, 107, 120, 140, 
164,  173,  184,  304. 

Vaeraelae,  peace  treaty  of,  351. 

Vserend,  29.  58,  66,  72. 

Vasrfvade,  714. 

Vaeringar,  49. 

Valdemar  of  Sweden,  80-84,  89. 

Valdemar  (king«  of  Denmark): 
Seier,  76,  77;  Atterdag,  95, 100. 

Valdemar,  Prince,  87,  89-91. 

Vandals,  47. 

Vanlande,  35. 

Varanger  Bay,  378,  387-388. 

Varberg,  167,  168. 

Variagi,  Varangians,  46-53. 

Varinians,  29. 

Vasa  dynasty,  family,  130, 168, 187, 
193,  194,  249;  Original  line: 
Krister  Nilsson,  108,  110,  130; 
Kettil  Karlsson,  112-113;  Eric 
Johansson,  128,  130;  Gustavus 
Ericsson  (see  Gustavus  I.);  Eric 
(see  Eric  XIV.);  John  (see  John 
III.);  Magnus  (see  Magnus, 
Princes  of  Sweden);  Charles  (see 
Charles  IX.);  Gustavus  Erics- 
son, 172-173;  Sigrid,  172-178, 
177;  Sigismund  (see  Sigismund); 
John,  Duke  (see  John):  Charles 
Philip  (see  Charles):  Catherine 
(see  Catherine,  Countess-Pala- 
tine); Gustavus  Adolphus  (see 
Gustavus  n.  Adolphus);  Chris- 
tine (see  Christine,  queens  of 
Sweden):  Polish  line,  163,  240; 
Sigismund  (see  Sigismund); 
Vladislav,  186,  188,  243;  John 
n.  Casimir,  243-244. 


Vasa  Renaissance.  See  Renais- 
sance. 

Vasa,  town,  860. 

Vassili,  Czar.     See  Schinsky. 

Vaxholm,  fortress  of,  197,  418. 

Venar,  Lake,  5,  69. 

Vends,  Vendish,  57,  68,  75. 

Vennerberg,  Gunnar,  889-390,  409. 
418. 

Verden,  229,  285,  312. 

Vermland,  5,  40,  41,  48,  55,  68,  83, 
107,  111,  116,  174,  194,  229,  307, 
308,  385. 

Vessi,  47. 

•'Verzage  nicht,"  215. 

Vettar,  Lake,  5,  77,  164,  418. 

Vexio,  71,  84,  291,  827,  828,  881. 

Viborg,  fortress  of,  88,  118,  293, 
812,  351. 

Victoria,  crown  princess  of  Swe- 
den-Norway, 415. 

Vienna,  203,  226,  299;  Congress  of, 
872-878;  Exposition,  421;  peace 
treaty  of,  405;  siege  of,  228-229. 

Viken,  46. 

Viking  Age,  Vikings,  8,  24,41,  44- 
63,  66,  70. 

Vilmanstrand,  battle  of,  816. 

Vincentius,  Bishop,  128. 

Virdar,  29. 

Virta,  battle  of,  358. 

Visbur.  35. 

Visby,  85,  95,  304. 

Visigoths,  236. 

Visingsborg,  251. 

Visingsce,  77,  87,  180. 

Vistula,  21,  27,  31. 

Vitalen,  or  Victualen  Brother* 
hood,  101. 

Vitesjoe,  battle  of,  195. 

Vladimir,  St.,  51,  52. 

Vladislav.     See  Vasa,  Polish  line, 

Voldgaestning,  86. 

Volga,  50. 

Volmar,  187. 

Voltaire,  347. 

Vordingborg,  247. 

Vorskla,  River,  285,  286. 

Vossius,  236-287. 

W 

Wachtmeister,  Hans,  259;  Hans 

Hansson,  435. 
Wahlberg,  Edward,  429. 
Wallachia,  22,  299. 


INDEX 


463 


Wallenstein,  303,  204,  210-318, 281. 

Wallhof,  battle  of,  302. 

Wallin,  J.  O.,  Archbishop,  881. 

Wallis,  Curt,  434. 

Walloons,  331. 

War  of  Clubs,  184. 

Warburg,  K.,  248. 

Warsaw,  battle  of,  344;  conquest 

of,  344,  878;  diet  of,  27a 
Washington,  George,  867. 
Weibule,  M.,  434. 
Weimar.    See  Bernhard,  Duke  of 

Weimar. 
Wendland,  43. 
Werben,  306. 
Westerbotten,  West  Bothnia,  6, 

16. 
Westerlund,  Dr.,  434. 
Westeros,  71,  107,  108,   133,   134, 

138,  189,  141,  143,  151,  171,  363, 

Ordinantia  and  Recess,  145-146; 

151. 
West  Gothland.    See  Gothland. 
Westmanland,  5,  58,  106,  107,  118, 

116,  147, 195. 
Westphalia,  388;  Peace  of,  839. 
Wetterstedt,  G.  af,  874. 
Wetterstrand,  Dr.,  484. 
Wickman,  G.,  431. 
Wikblad,  S.  H.,  435. 
Wikner,  Pontus,  423. 
William,  Bishop  of  Salima,  TSL 
William  L  of  Germany,  415. 
William  of  Orange,  859. 
Windau,  203. 
Windsor,  387. 
Wingard,  C.  F.  af,  888. 


Wirs6n,  G.  P.  af.  874,  878. 

Wismar,  339,  857. 

Witches,  351. 

Witmar,  54. 

Wittelsbachs,  The,  849. 

Wittstock,  battle  of,  333. 

Wolfenbuttel,  battle  of,  884. 

Wolgast,  333. 

Wollin,  island  of,  56,  339, 818. 

Women's  rights,  383. 

Wrangel,      886;     Herman,     808; 

Charles  Gustavus,  837,  889,  348, 

350,  351,  353,  357. 
Wulfila,  67,  385,  887,  841. 
Wulfstan,  48. 


Yeoman,  Yeomanry,  78,  78,  79; 
106,  108,  111,  114,  186, 144, 148, 
149,  158,  193,  199,  301,  883,  338, 
351,  358,  365,  358,  360,  314,  81«. 
818,  850,  357,  897,  407,  416,  488. 

Ynglinga  Saga,  81,  83-41,  51. 

Ynglingatal,  88-41. 

Ynglings,  Yngling  kings,  33-41. 

Yngvar,  88-89. 

Yngve,  Swedish  kings,  85;  86. 

York,  68. 

Yrsa,88. 


Zamoiskt,  187. 
Zettervall,  H.,  48a 
Zoology,  880. 
Zorn,  A.  L.,  480. 


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